Chemokines such as monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 are key agonists that attract macrophages to tumors. In melanoma, it has been previously shown that variable levels of MCP-1/CCL2 appear to correlate with infiltrating macrophages and tumor fate, with low to intermediate levels of the chemokine contributing to melanoma development. To work under such conditions, a poorly tumorigenic human melanoma cell line was transfected with an expression vector encoding MCP-1. We found that M2 macrophages are associated to MCP-1+ tumors, triggering a profuse vascular network. To target the protumoral macrophages recruitment and reverting tumor growth promotion, clodronate-laden liposomes (Clod-Lip) or bindarit were administered to melanoma-bearing mice. Macrophage depletion after Clod-Lip treatment induced development of smaller tumors than in untreated mice. Immunohistochemical analysis with an anti-CD31 antibody revealed scarce vascular structures mainly characterized by narrow vascular lights. Pharmacological inhibition of MCP-1 with bindarit also reduced tumor growth and macrophage recruitment, rendering necrotic tumor masses. We suggest that bindarit or Clod-Lip abrogates protumoral-associated macrophages in human melanoma xenografts and could be considered as complementary approaches to antiangiogenic therapy.

Dendritic cells (DCs) play a pivotal role in the orchestration of immune responses, and are thus key targets in cancer vaccine design. Since the 2010 FDA approval of the first cancer DC-based vaccine (Sipuleucel-T), there has been a surge of interest in exploiting these cells as a therapeutic option for the treatment of tumors of diverse origin. In spite of the encouraging results obtained in the clinic, many elements of DC-based vaccination strategies need to be optimized. In this context, the use of experimental cancer models can help direct efforts toward an effective vaccine design. This paper reviews recent findings in murine models regarding the antitumoral mechanisms of DC-based vaccination, covering issues related to antigen sources, the use of adjuvants and maturing agents, and the role of DC subsets and their interaction in the initiation of antitumoral immune responses. The summary of such diverse aspects will highlight advantages and drawbacks in the use of murine models, and contribute to the design of successful DC-based translational approaches for cancer treatment.

There is growing evidence that necrosis, instead of apoptosis, could act as a natural adjuvant, which could activate an immune response. In this work we have investigated if induction of tumor necrosis could trigger the affluence of inflammatory cells at the tumor site, and thus induce an immune response. For this purpose, a liquid N2 spray was applied on human melanoma (IIB-MEL-J cell line) xenografted in nude mice and 24 h later some mice received intratumorally a single 500 U dose of recombinant murine granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating factor. 77-100% of the tumor mass underwent necrosis. Congestion, edema, and endothelial cell activation were the first noticeable events. A quick infiltrative response of polymorphonuclear leukocytes around the tumor was detected 24 h after liquid N2 application, peaking at day 3. Massive macrophage recruitment was observed since day 3. An early intratumoral infiltration with inflammatory cells was only detected in the group that received recombinant murine granulocyte macrophage- colony-stimulating factor after necrosis induction by liquid N2. Coexisting DEC 205- and F4/80-positive cells increased in number, and their localization was predominantly peritumoral after necrosis. Antibody response was only detected in the groups with tumor-induced necrosis. Our results suggest that cryosurgery-induced necrosis could be a useful model to analyze the interaction among necrosis, inflammation, and the generation of an immune response.