Ever since its first use in surgery, general anesthesia has been regarded as a medical miracle enabling countless life-saving diagnostic and therapeutic interventions without pain sensation and traumatic memories. Despite several decades of research, there is a lack of understanding of how general anesthetics induce a reversible coma-like state. Emerging evidence suggests that even brief exposure to general anesthesia may have a lasting impact on mature and especially developing brains. Commonly used anesthetics have been shown to destabilize dendritic spines and induce an enhanced plasticity state, with effects on cognition, motor functions, mood, and social behavior. Herein, we review the effects of the most widely used general anesthetics on dendritic spine dynamics and discuss functional and molecular correlates with action mechanisms. We consider the impact of neurodevelopment, anatomical location of neurons, and their neurochemical profile on neuroplasticity induction, and review the putative signaling pathways. It emerges that in addition to possible adverse effects, the stimulation of synaptic remodeling with the formation of new connections by general anesthetics may present tremendous opportunities for translational research and neurorehabilitation.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition causing a range of social and communication impairments. Although the role of multiple genes and environmental factors has been reported, the effects of the interplay between genes and environment on the onset and progression of the disease remains elusive. We housed wild‐type (Tsc2+/+) and tuberous sclerosis 2 deficient (Tsc2+/−) Eker rats (ASD model) in individually ventilated cages or enriched conditions and conducted a series of behavioural tests followed by the histochemical analysis of dendritic spines and plasticity in three age groups (days 45, 90 and 365). The elevated plus‐maze test revealed a reduction of anxiety by enrichment, whereas the mobility of young and adult Eker rats in the open field was lower compared to the wild type. In the social interaction test, an enriched environment reduced social contact in the youngest group and increased anogenital exploration in 90‐ and 365‐day‐old rats. Self‐grooming was increased by environmental enrichment in young and adult rats and decreased in aged Eker rats. Dendritic spine counts revealed an increased spine density in the cingulate gyrus in adult Ekers irrespective of housing conditions, whereas spine density in hippocampal pyramidal neurons was comparable across all genotypes and groups. Morphometric analysis of dendritic spines revealed age‐related changes in spine morphology and density, which were responsive to animal genotype and environment. Taken together, our findings suggest that under TSC2 haploinsufficiency and mTORC1 hyperactivity, the expression of behavioural signs and neuroplasticity in Eker rats can be differentially influenced by the developmental stage and environment.

In neurodegenerative diseases, changes in neuronal proteins in the cerebrospinal fluid and blood are viewed as potential biomarkers of the primary pathology in the central nervous system (CNS). Recent reports suggest, however, that level of neuronal proteins in fluids also alters in several types of epilepsy in various age groups, including children. With increasing evidence supporting clinical and sub-clinical seizures in Alzheimer’s disease, Lewy body dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and in other less common neurodegenerative conditions, these findings call into question the specificity of neuronal protein response to neurodegenerative process and urge analysis of the effects of concomitant epilepsy and other comorbidities. In this article, we revisit the evidence for alterations in neuronal proteins in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid associated with epilepsy with and without neurodegenerative diseases. We discuss shared and distinctive characteristics of changes in neuronal markers, review their neurobiological mechanisms, and consider the emerging opportunities and challenges for their future research and diagnostic use.