Failure to act quickly on evidence of rapid population decline has led to the first mammal extinction in Australia in the last 50 years, the Christmas Island Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus murrayi). The fate of another iconic species, the migratory Orange-bellied Parrot (Neophema chrysogaster), monitored intensively for over 20 years, hangs in the balance. To inform future conservation management and decision making, we investigate the decision process that has led to the plight of both species. Our analysis suggests three globally relevant recommendations for minimizing species extinction worldwide: (1) informed, empowered, and responsive governance and leadership is essential; (2) processes that ensure institutional accountability must be in place, and; (3) decisions must be made whilst there is an opportunity to act. The bottom line is that, unless responsive and accountable institutional processes are in place, decisions will be delayed and extinction will occur.

Assisted Colonization (AC) has been proposed as one method of aiding species to adapt to the impacts of climate change. AC is a form of translocation and translocation protocols for threatened species, mostly for reintroduction, are well established in Australia. We evaluate the information available from implementation of translocations to understand how existing policies and guidelines should be varied to plan, review and regulate AC. While the risks associated with AC are potentially greater than those of reintroductions, AC is likely to be the only available method, other than germplasm storage and establishment of captive populations, of conserving many taxa under future climate change. AC may also be necessary to maintain ecosystem services, particularly where keystone species are affected. Current policies and procedures for the preparation of Translocation Proposals will require modification and expansion to deal with Assisted Colonization, particularly in relation to risk management, genetic management, success criteria, moving associated species and community consultation. Further development of risk assessment processes, particularly for invasiveness, and guidelines for genetic management to maintain evolutionary potential are particularly important in the context of changing climate. Success criteria will need to respond to population establishment in the context of new and evolving ecosystems, and to reflect requirements for any co-establishment of interdependent species. Translocation Proposals should always be subjected to independent peer review before being considered by regulators. We conclude that consistent approaches by regulators and multilateral agreements between jurisdictions are required to minimize duplication, to ensure the risk of AC is adequately assessed and to ensure the potential benefits of AC are realized.

The diversity and abundance of native invertebrates is declining globally, which could have significant consequences for ecosystem functioning. Declines are likely to be at least as severe as those observed for vertebrates, although often are difficult to quantify due to a lack of historic baseline data and limited monitoring effort. The Lepidoptera are well studied in Australia compared with other invertebrates, so we know that some species are imperilled or declining. Despite this, few butterfly taxa are explicitly listed for protection by legislation. Here we aim to identify the butterfly taxa that would most benefit from listing by determining the Australian butterflies at most immediate risk of extinction. We also identify the research and management actions needed to retain them. For 26 taxa identified by experts and various conservation schedules, we used structured expert elicitation to estimate the probability of extinction within 20 years (i.e. by 2040) and to identify key threatening processes, priority research and management needs. Collation and analysis of expert opinion indicated that one taxon, the laced fritillary (Argynnis hyperbius inconstans), is particularly imperilled, and that four taxa (Jalmenus eubulus, Jalmenus aridus, Hypochrysops piceatus and Oreisplanus munionga larana) have a moderate–high (>30%) risk of extinction by 2040. Mapped distributions of the 26 butterflies revealed that most are endemic to a single state or territory, and that many occupy narrow ranges. Inappropriate fire regimes, habitat loss and fragmentation (through agricultural practices), invasive species (mostly through habitat degradation caused by weeds and rabbits) and climate change were the most prevalent threats affecting the taxa considered. Increased resourcing and management intervention will be required to prevent these extinctions. We provide specific recommendations for averting such losses.

A colony of the threatened Purple Copper Butterfly was found in bushland after construction for road works had commenced, triggering a rescue plan supported by the roads authority, ecologists and community volunteers. Although the efforts resulted in a high level of success and the development of new techniques for caterpillar relocation, the take-home message remains that protection is still better than cure . Raymond Mjadwesch is a consulting ecologist based in the Central Tablelands of New South Wales (He has worked extensively in survey, monitoring and management of the butterfly since 1997. Simon Nally managed the Purple Copper Butterfly recovery programme between 1998 and 2005 for the then New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service. This article was prepared to communicate the methods and implications of this relocation project to others involved in the conservation and restoration of native species and habitats.

Environmental and conservation scientists are increasingly being asked to justify their work in terms of benefits to society. This article describes economic theory for conceptualizing the benefits from environmental research, and provides a framework for estimating those benefits. In particular we discuss the evaluation of environmental science that is intended to benefit society through informing policy decisions. The chain between environmental research and its benefits through policy change includes at least four links: the research itself, policy change, behavior change and environmental change. Each of these four stages presents challenges and entails time lags. If any link fails, the chain breaks. The standard economic model of supply and demand, which is used to quantify benefits from research into market goods, can be adapted for application to environmental goods. Improved conceptualization and measurement of benefits from environmental research would assist environmental scientists to: (1) select research topics that are likely to deliver large environmental benefits; (2) design their research in a way that will increase its relevance, usefulness and potential impact on policy and, ultimately, the environment; and (3) make the case for funding particular research proposals. It could assist research agencies or research funders to: prioritize proposed research; make a case for increased funding for environmental research; and identify obstacles to the translation of research into environmental impacts, allowing attention to be focused on addressing these bottlenecks. 3