KAP1/TIF1␤ is proposed to be a universal corepressor protein for the KRAB zinc finger protein (KRAB-zfp) superfamily of transcriptional repressors. To characterize the role of KAP1 and KAP1-interacting proteins in transcriptional repression, we investigated the regulation of stably integrated reporter transgenes by hormoneresponsive KRAB and KAP1 repressor proteins. Here, we demonstrate that depletion of endogenous KAP1 levels by small interfering RNA (siRNA) significantly inhibited KRAB-mediated transcriptional repression of a chromatin template. Similarly, reduction in cellular levels of HP1␣/␤/␥ and SETDB1 by siRNA attenuated KRAB-KAP1 repression. We also found that direct tethering of KAP1 to DNA was sufficient to repress transcription of an integrated transgene. This activity is absolutely dependent upon the interaction of KAP1 with HP1 and on an intact PHD finger and bromodomain of KAP1, suggesting that these domains function cooperatively in transcriptional corepression. The achievement of the repressed state by wild-type KAP1 involves decreased recruitment of RNA polymerase II, reduced levels of histone H3 K9 acetylation and H3K4 methylation, an increase in histone occupancy, enrichment of trimethyl histone H3K9, H3K36, and histone H4K20, and HP1 deposition at proximal regulatory sequences of the transgene. A KAP1 protein containing a mutation of the HP1 binding domain failed to induce any change in the histone modifications associated with DNA sequences of the transgene, implying that HP1-directed nuclear compartmentalization is required for transcriptional repression by the KRAB/KAP1 repression complex. The combination of these data suggests that KAP1 functions to coordinate activities that dynamically regulate changes in histone modifications and deposition of HP1 to establish a de novo microenvironment of heterochromatin, which is required for repression of gene transcription by KRAB-zfps.Genetic and epigenetic programs that control proper spatial and temporal patterns of gene expression are instrumental for pluripotent stem cells to determine cellular identity and maintain homeostasis of adult metazoans. Though historically viewed as a passive packaging unit, remodeling of chromatin structure has emerged as a key target for programming of gene expression during early embryogenesis and tissue-specific gene transcription. The dynamic regulation of chromatin organization appears to be accomplished in part by at least four families of proteins, including the following: (i) macromolecular protein complexes that utilize energy from ATP hydrolysis to disrupt DNA-protein interactions; (ii) proteins with intrinsic enzymatic activity to posttranslationally modify the core histones; (iii) nonhistone chromosomal proteins; and (iv) histone variants. Increasing experimental evidence indicates that the combinatorial use of histone variants, posttranslational modification of histones (i.e., acetylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and methylation), and nonhistone chromatin-associated proteins that recognize th...

Rett syndrome (RTT) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder caused by mutations in the X chromosomal gene Methyl-CpG-binding Protein 2 (MECP2) (1). RTT treatment so far is symptomatic. Mecp2 disruption in mice phenocopies major features of the syndrome (2) that can be reversed upon re-expression of Mecp2 (3. It has recently been reported that transplantation of wild type (WT) bone marrow (BMT) into lethally irradiated Mecp2tm1.1Jae/y mice prevented neurologic decline and early death by restoring microglial phagocytic activity against apoptotic targets (4). Based on this report, clinical trials of BMT for patients with RTT have been initiated (5). We aimed to replicate and extend the BMT experiments in three different RTT mouse models but found that despite robust microglial engraftment, BMT from WT donors did not rescue early death or ameliorate neurologic deficits. Furthermore, early and specific genetic expression of Mecp2 in microglia did not rescue Mecp2-deficient mice. In conclusion our experiments do not support BMT as therapy for RTT.

Rett syndrome (RS) is a debilitating neurological disorder affecting mostly girls with heterozygous mutations in the gene encoding the methyl-CpG-binding protein MeCP2 on the X chromosome. Because restoration of MeCP2 expression in a mouse model reverses neurologic deficits in adult animals, reactivation of the wild-type copy of MeCP2 on the inactive X chromosome (Xi) presents a therapeutic opportunity in RS. To identify genes involved in MeCP2 silencing, we screened a library of 60,000 shRNAs using a cell line with a MeCP2 reporter on the Xi and found 30 genes clustered in seven functional groups. More than half encoded proteins with known enzymatic activity, and six were members of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)/TGF-β pathway. shRNAs directed against each of these six genes down-regulated X-inactive specific transcript (XIST), a key player in X-chromosome inactivation that encodes an RNA that coats the silent X chromosome, and modulation of regulators of this pathway both in cell culture and in mice demonstrated robust regulation of XIST. Moreover, we show that Rnf12, an X-encoded ubiquitin ligase important for initiation of X-chromosome inactivation and XIST transcription in ES cells, also plays a role in maintenance of the inactive state through regulation of BMP/TGF-β signaling. Our results identify pharmacologically suitable targets for reactivation of MeCP2 on the Xi and a genetic circuitry that maintains XIST expression and X-chromosome inactivation in differentiated cells.XIST | X inactivation | MeCP2 | Rett syndrome | BMP/TGF-β