This article investigates the form of European universities to determine the extent to which they resemble the characteristics of complete organizations and whether the forms are associated with modernization policy pressure, national institutional frames and organizational characteristics. An original data set of twenty-six universities from eight countries was used. Specialist universities have a stronger identity, whereas the level of hierarchy and rationality is clearly associated with the intensity of modernization policies. At the same time, evidence suggests limitations for universities to become complete, as mechanisms allowing the development of some dimensions seemingly constrain the capability to develop others.

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The implementation of the governance reform of Portuguese higher education has been developed under the influence of 'new public management' resulting in the loss of collegial governance. Additionally, the need for meta-governance of the higher education system and institutions to monitor institutional performance against policy objectives has become evident. By examining the implementation of the legal framework for higher education on the basis of document analysis covering the period from 2007 to 2011 the 'new governance' perspective allows a broader interpretation of the governance reform outcomes. This has implications for the enhancement of institutional autonomy induced by governance reforms impacting on European higher education systems and highlights the tools approach in public management.

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