Translation in dendrites is believed to support synaptic changes during memory consolidation. Although translational control mechanisms are fundamental mediators of memory, little is known about their role in local translation. We previously found that polyribosomes accumulate in dendritic spines of the adult rat lateral amygdala (LA) during consolidation of aversive pavlovian conditioning and that this memory requires cap-dependent initiation, a primary point of translational control in eukaryotic cells. Here we used serial electron microscopy reconstructions to quantify polyribosomes in LA dendrites when consolidation was blocked by the cap-dependent initiation inhibitor 4EGI-1. We found that 4EGI-1 depleted polyribosomes in dendritic shafts and selectively prevented their upregulation in spine heads, but not bases and necks, during consolidation. Cap-independent upregulation was specific to spines with small, astrocyteassociated synapses. Our results reveal that cap-dependent initiation is involved in local translation during learning and that local translational control varies with synapse type.

There is evidence that genetic polymorphisms and environmentally induced epigenetic changes play an important role in modifying disease risk. The commensal microbiota has the ability to affect the cellular environment throughout the body without requiring direct contact; for example, through the generation of a pro-inflammatory state. In this review, we discuss evidence that dysbiosis in intestinal, pharyngeal, oral, and ocular microbiome can lead to epigenetic reprogramming and inflammation making the host more susceptible to ocular disease such as autoimmune uveitis, age-related macular degeneration, and open angle glaucoma. Several mechanisms of action have been proposed to explain how changes to commensal microbiota contribute to these diseases. This is an evolving field that has potentially significant implications in the management of these conditions especially from a public health perspective.

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Local translation can provide a rapid, spatially targeted supply of new proteins in distal dendrites to support synaptic changes that underlie learning. Learning and memory are especially sensitive to manipulations of translational control mechanisms, particularly those that target the initiation step, and translation initiation at synapses could be a means of maintaining synapse specificity during plasticity. Initiation predominantly occurs via recruitment of ribosomes to the 5 0 mRNA cap by complexes of eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs), and the interaction between eIF4E and eIF4G1 is a particularly important target of translational control pathways. Pharmacological inhibition of eIF4E-eIF4G1 binding impairs formation of memory for aversive Pavlovian conditioning as well as the accompanying increase in polyribosomes in the heads of dendritic spines in the lateral amygdala (LA). This is consistent with a role for initiation at synapses in memory formation, but whether eIFs are even present near synapses is unknown. To determine whether dendritic spines contain eIFs and whether eIF distribution is affected by learning, we combined immunolabeling with serial section transmission electron microscopy (ssTEM) volume reconstructions of LA dendrites after Pavlovian conditioning. Labeling for eIF4E, eIF4G1, and eIF2α-another key target of regulation-occurred in roughly half of dendritic spines, but learning effects were only found for eIF4E, which was upregulated in the heads of dendritic spines. Our results support the possibility of regulated translation initiation as a means of synapse-specific protein targeting during learning and are consistent with the model of eIF4E availability as a central point of control.