Dopamine controls various physiological functions in the brain and periphery by acting on its receptors D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5. Dopamine receptors are G protein–coupled receptors involved in the regulation of motor activity and several neurological disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, Parkinson’s disease (PD), Alzheimer’s disease, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Reduction in dopamine content in the nigrostriatal pathway is associated with the development of PD, along with the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra region. Dopamine receptors directly regulate neurotransmission of other neurotransmitters, release of cyclic adenosine monophosphate, cell proliferation, and differentiation. Here, we provide an update on recent knowledge about the signalling mechanism, mode of action, and the evidence for the physiological and functional basis of dopamine receptors. We also highlight the pivotal role of these receptors in the modulation of neurogenesis, a possible therapeutic target that might help to slow down the process of neurodegeneration.

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Oxidative stress and neuroinflammation are known causative factors in progressive degeneration of dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD). Neural stem cells (NSCs) contribute in maintaining brain plasticity; therefore, survival of NSCs and neuroblasts during neurodegenerative process becomes important in replenishing the pool of mature neuronal population. Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR), present in almost all body cells, increases endogenous antioxidants and regulates bioenergetics. Currently, no information is available about the putative mechanism and neuroprotective effects of ALCAR in 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced rat model of PD-like phenotypes. Herein, we investigated the effect of ALCAR on death/survival of DAergic neurons, neuroblasts and NSCs and associates mechanism of neuroprotection in 6-OHDA-induced rat model of PD-like phenotypes. ALCAR (100 mg/kg/day, intraperitoneal (i.p.)) treatment started 3 days prior to 6-OHDA lesioning and continued for another 14 day post-lesioning. We found that ALCAR pretreatment in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats increased expression of neurogenic and the Wnt pathway genes in the striatum and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) region. It suppressed the glial cell activation, improved antioxidant status, increased NSC/neuroblast population and rescued the DAergic neurons in nigrostriatal pathway. ALCAR pretreatment in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats decreased GSK-3β activation and increased nuclear translocation of β-catenin. Functional deficits were restored following ALCAR pretreatment in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats as demonstrated by improved motor coordination and rotational behaviour, confirming protection of DAergic innervations in lesioned striatum. These results indicate that ALCAR exerts neuroprotective effects through the activation of Wnt/β-catenin pathway, suggesting its therapeutic use to treat neurodegenerative diseases by enhancing regenerative capacity.

Neurogenesis involves generation of functional newborn neurons from neural stem cells (NSCs). Insufficient formation or accelerated degeneration of newborn neurons may contribute to the severity of motor/nonmotor symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the functional role of adult neurogenesis in PD is yet not explored and whether glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) affects multiple steps of adult neurogenesis in PD is still unknown. We investigated the possible underlying molecular mechanism of impaired adult neurogenesis associated with PD. Herein, we show that single intra-medial forebrain bundle (MFB) injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) efficiently induced long-term activation of GSK-3β and reduced NSC self-renewal, proliferation, neuronal migration, and neuronal differentiation accompanied with increased astrogenesis in subventricular zone (SVZ) and hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG). Indeed, 6-OHDA also delayed maturation of neuroblasts in the DG as witnessed by their reduced dendritic length and arborization. Using a pharmacological approach to inhibit GSK-3β activation by specific inhibitor SB216763, we show that GSK-3β inhibition enhances radial glial cells, NSC proliferation, self-renewal in the SVZ, and the subgranular zone (SGZ) in the rat PD model. Pharmacological inhibition of GSK-3β activity enhances neuroblast population in SVZ and SGZ and promotes migration of neuroblasts towards the rostral migratory stream and lesioned striatum from dorsal SVZ and lateral SVZ, respectively, in PD model. GSK-3β inhibition enhances dendritic arborization and survival of granular neurons and stimulates NSC differentiation towards the neuronal phenotype in DG of PD model. The aforementioned effects of GSK-3β involve a crosstalk between Wnt/β-catenin and Notch signaling pathways that are known to regulate NSC dynamics.