Interventions in the clean cooking sector have focused on improved biomass stoves in a bid to address household air pollution (HAP) in low- and middle-income countries. These initiatives have not delivered adequate health and environmental benefits owing to the less than optimal performance of improved biomass stoves. There is an urgency to transition communities to cleaner cooking systems such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to reduce the prevalence of HAP. Adoption of LPG also has challenges. This case-control cross-sectional study with 510 households examines how affordability, accessibility, and awareness (3As) are associated with LPG adoption in rural poor households of Andhra Pradesh, a state of India. Using binomial logistic regression analyses, the study examines the association of 3As with LPG adoption, adjusting for demographic predictors. Results show disparities in LPG adoption owing to affordability, accessibility, and awareness. Household income is positively associated with LPG adoption. Easy availability of biomass deters households from adopting LPG. Concerns for LPG safety reduces likelihood of LPG adoption. On the other hand, attending awareness campaigns on clean cooking benefits is strongly associated with LPG adoption. Awareness drives, primarily targeted marketing campaigns, could help expand LPG coverage among poorer households. This paper offers insights into the determinants of clean fuel adoption with implications for resource-poor settings across the world to advance energy justice and address energy poverty.

We look at infrastructure and policies in India around the distribution of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to rural communities and incorporate the experiences and perspectives of dissemination personnel. This qualitative study is part of a larger case control study aimed at examining strategies to promote adoption and sustained use of clean cooking technology, particularly among the rural poor in southern India. Our focus on dissemination personnel helps illuminate extant policy implementation and strategies to increase LPG uptake among the poor. Thematic analysis of 13 semi-structured interviews points to gaps in workforce training, infrastructure, and interface of the technology with social norms. Reduction in refill costs and removal of LPG subsidies was widely suggested to increase uptake and use. Themes identified underscore that policies promoting LPG for the poor will have limited success in the absence of commensurate infrastructure for LPG dissemination and awareness. Despite being primary policy beneficiaries, the under-representation of women within energy governance such as LPG distribution systems identified in this study presents a gap that interventions should focus on. Perspectives from those at the frontiers of implementation of a national energy policy provide insights into the high points as well as operational setbacks to help understand dissemination strategies within energy systems.Sustainability 2020, 12, 2327 2 of 18 premature deaths due to respiratory infections and the established link with HAP necessitates urgent action prompting a number of interventions in this space by the central government. Energy Use in the Cooking SectorAbout 70% of the Indian population continues to depend on biomass and traditional fuels for their everyday energy needs [7]. Fuel sources like kerosene, charcoal, biogas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), electricity, and solar energy are also used to varying degrees. Of these sources, electricity and solar are the cleanest, but their reach and availability have been limited. Among non-renewable sources of energy, LPG has been promoted as a clean alternative to traditional biomass as it is considered a low carbon fossil fuel [8]. The difference in usage and availability of these fuels is often a factor of household income, and to a certain extent, intra-household power relations [9]. Fuel usage in India correlates with income levels: lower income households tend to use more fuelwood and higher income households tend to use more LPG and electricity [5,10]. Other behavioral factors such as cooking preferences, market networks, cultural, and social norms, as well as safety concerns are also influential in decision making [5,[10][11][12]. There is an urban-rural divide in the usage of LPG with over 60% of urban households in India using LPG, as opposed to over 70% of the rural population that depends on biomass [8]. Dependence on traditional fuel sources demands a significant amount of time and effort in collection and usage, primarily on the part of women and children [5...