Despite numerous sex differences found in spatial navigation, perception, and verbal abilities, the manner in which these differences manifest themselves in terms of online navigation has yet to be explored. We propose a unified framework based on evolutionary psychology and supported by recent findings in cognitive neuroscience for understanding sex differences in cognition and how they relate to online navigation and website preferences. The literature on sex differences in navigation, object location, spatial rotation, the perception of color, form, and movement, and verbal fluency is reviewed within the context of their evolutionary underpinnings. Based on these findings, specific website design recommendations are proposed. Results of a pilot study examining sex differences in web navigation provide evidence that utilizing an evolutionary approach can engender findings with significant implications for e-communication researchers and practitioners alike.

This study is a step forward in the continued evolution of our understanding of multiple standards of customer service expectations. By developing a higher‐order factor model, we examine the existence of hypothesized functional and technical dimensions of should and will expectations, and determine the causal relationships between the two types of expectations and the two hypothesized dimensions. In an effort to provide a richer conceptualization of should and will expectations, we test their dimensionality in the context of the turbulent airline industry. A survey measuring consumers' post‐encounter expectations vis‐à‐vis a well‐known airline carrier was completed by a sample of experienced travelers (N = 363). As expected, should expectations were higher than will expectations with the former exhibiting less variability than the latter. Our second‐order factor model also revealed two types of expectations, should and will, and two dimensions, functional and technical, for each type. Given its multidimensional nature, our model of customer service expectations has far‐reaching implications in carrying out and interpreting service quality and satisfaction research. Based on our findings, we recommend that managers formulate useful marketing strategies by manipulating should and will expectations simultaneously, and by focusing more on the functional as opposed to the technical dimensions, at least in the airline industry. Résumé La présente étude marque un nouveau développement dans la compréhension des diverses normes d'évaluation du service à la clientèle. Grâce à l'élaboration d'un modèle factoriel de plus haut niveau, nous examinons l'existence des dimensions à teneur fonctionnelle et technique qui sont sous‐jacentes aux attentes normatives (should) et prédictives (will) et déterminons la relation causale entre les deux types d'attentes. Dans le souci de fournir une meilleure image de la conceptualisation des attentes prédictives et normatives, nous avons choisi l'industrie aéri‐enne qui a récemment connu beaucoup de mutations. Nous avons sélectionné un échantillon composé de personnes qui ont l'habitude de voyager (N = 363) auxquelles nous avons distribué un questionnaire portant sur les attentes envers une compagnie aérienne reconnue. Conformément à notre hypothèse, le niveau des attentes normatives (should) était plus élevé que celui des attentes prédictives (will), le premier présentant une plus grande variabilityé que le second. Le facteur de second ordre a confirmé non seulement l'existence d'attentes normatives et prédictives, mais aussi l'existence de deux dimensions (fonctionnelle et technique) qui sous‐tendent chacun des deux types d'attentes étudés. De par sa nature multidimensionnelle, le modèle d'attentes proposé dans cet article comporte plusieurs implications théoriques au niveau de la recherche sur la qualityé du service et sur la satisfaction. Nos résultats nous incitent à recommander aux gestionnaires de manipuler simultanément les attentes prédictives et normatives et de concentrer...

Package often represents the consumers' first contact with the product on the point of purchase (Underwood & Klein, 2002). Besides, consumers exposure to package often continues until its full consumption (Chandon, 2013). Package design elements have been shown to be a critical source of information consumers use to forge expectations and make choices about products and brands (Greenleaf & Raghubir, 2008; Orth & Malkewitz, 2008). While the marketing literature has seen a recent interest in the study of the effect of package design elements on product evaluation (e.g., Koo & Suk, 2016; Lui et al., 2017; Rundh, 2013), research on package transparency has been scarce (Deng and Srinivasan, 2013). However, understanding the use of transparency is key as it corresponds to a strong trend where consumers want to see what they are buying (Schürmann, 2008) and it has been shown to influence the amount of product consumed (Deng & Srinivasan, 2013). This study aims at contributing to the marketing research on structural package design elements, in particular transparency, by investigating the Canadian food industry's practices. A quantitative content analysis of 1,500 packages belonging to product categories where the use of transparency, opacity, and on-package windows is prevalent has been undertaken. This research offers a comprehensive understanding of the wide array of transparency, opacity and windowing practices adopted by food manufacturers and producers in different contexts. It highlights several future research avenues in terms of understanding the role of package opacity level, shape and location of windows, and substituting or complementing a displayed image on consumer product and brand judgement. From a managerial standpoint, it offers a broad view of the current use of transparency in several industries and underlines the advantages and downsides of the use of this package design element by food producers and manufacturers.