The Higher Himalayan Shear Zone (HHSZ) in the Sutlej section reveals (1) top-to-SW ductile shearing, (2) top-to-NE ductile shearing in the upper-and the lower strands of the South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS U , STDS L ), and (3) top-to-SW brittle shearing corroborated by trapezoid-shaped minerals in micro-scale. In the proposed extrusion model of the HHSZ, the E 1 -phase during 25-19 Ma is marked by simple shearing of the upper subchannel defined by the upper strand of the Main Central Thrust (MCT U ) and the top of STDS U as the lower-and the upper boundaries, respectively. Subsequently, the E 2a -pulse during 15-14 Ma was characterized by simple shear, pure shear, and channel flow of the entire HHSZ. Finally, the E 2b -pulse during 14-12 Ma observed simple shearing and channel flow of the lower sub-channel defined by the lower strand of the Main Central Thrust (MCT L ) and the top of the STDS L as the lower-and the upper boundaries, respectively. The model explains the constraints of thicknesses of the STDS U and the STDS L along with spatially variable extrusion rate and the inverted metamorphism of the HHSZ. The model predicts (1) shear strain after ductile extrusion to be maximum at the boundaries of the HHSZ, which crudely matches with the existing data. The other speculations that cannot be checked are (2) uniform shear strain from the MCT U to the top of the HHSZ in the E 1 -phase; (3) fastest rates of extrusion of the lower boundaries of the STDS U and the STDS L during the E 2a -and E 2b -pulses, respectively; and (4) variable thickness of the STDS L and rare absence of the STDS U . Non-parabolic shear fabrics of the HHSZ possibly indicate heterogeneous strain. The top-to-SW brittle shearing around 12 Ma augmented the ductile extruded rocks to arrive a shallower depth. The brittle-ductile extension leading to boudinage possibly did not enhance the extrusion.

The parabolic surface profiles of the Hormuz and Namakdan salt diapirs in the Persian Gulf suggest that they have been extruding with Newtonian viscous rheologies for the last 104 years. We derive velocity profiles for these diapirs, neglecting gravitational spreading and erosion/dissolution while assuming incompressible Newtonian rheology of the salt. Fitting known rates of extrusion at specific points in its elliptical cross-section, the dynamic viscosity of the salt of the Hormuz diapir is found to range between 1018 and 1021 Pa s. Approximating its sub-circular cross-section to a perfect circle, the range of viscosity of the salt of the Namakdan diapir is obtained as 1017–1021 Pa s. These calculated viscosities fall within the range for naturally flowing salts elsewhere and for other salt diapirs but are broader than those for salts with Newtonian rheology deforming at room temperatures. The salts of the Hormuz and Namakdan diapirs are expected to exhibit a broader range of grain size, which matches the limited existing data.

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The Higher Himalayan Shear Zone (HHSZ) contains a ductile top-to-N/NE shear zone-the South Tibetan detachment system-lower (STDS L ) and an out-ofsequence thrust (OOST) as well as a top-to-N/NE normal shear at its northern boundary and ubiquitously distributed compressional top-to-S/SW shear throughout the shear zone. The OOST that was active between 22 Ma and the Holocene, varies in thickness from 50 m to 6 km and in throw from 1.4 to 20 km. Channel flow analogue models of this structural geology were performed in this work. A Newtonian viscous polymer (PDMS) was pushed through a horizontal channel leading to an inclined channel with parallel and upward-diverging boundaries analogous to the HHSZ and allowed to extrude to the free surface. A top-to-N/NE shear zone equivalent to the STDS U developed spontaneously. This also indirectly connotes an independent flow confined to the southern part of the HHSZ gave rise to the STDS L . The PDMS originally inside the horizontal channel extruded at a faster rate through the upper part of the inclined channel. The lower boundary of this faster PDMS defined the OOST. The model OOST originated at the corner and reached the vent at positions similar to the natural prototype some time after the channel flow began. The genesis of the OOST seems to be unrelated to any rheologic contrast or climatic effects. Profound variations in the flow parameters along the HHSZ and the extrusive force probably resulted in variations in the timing, location, thickness and slip parameters of the OOST. Variation in pressure gradient within the model horizontal channel, however, could not be matched with the natural prototype. Channel flow alone presumably did not result in southward propagation of deformation in the Himalaya.

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