Neuroinflammation is a pathophysiological hallmark of multiple sclerosis and has a close mechanistic link to neurodegeneration. Although this link is potentially targetable, robust translatable models to reliably quantify and track neuroinflammation in both mice and humans are lacking. The choroid plexus (ChP) plays a pivotal role in regulating the trafficking of immune cells from the brain parenchyma into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and has recently attracted attention as a key structure in the initiation of inflammatory brain responses. In a translational framework, we here address the integrity and multidimensional characteristics of the ChP under inflammatory conditions and question whether ChP volumes could act as an interspecies marker of neuroinflammation that closely interrelates with functional impairment. Therefore, we explore ChP characteristics in neuroinflammation in patients with multiple sclerosis and in two experimental mouse models, cuprizone diet-related demyelination and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. We demonstrate that ChP enlargement—reconstructed from MRI—is highly associated with acute disease activity, both in the studied mouse models and in humans. A close dependency of ChP integrity and molecular signatures of neuroinflammation is shown in the performed transcriptomic analyses. Moreover, pharmacological modulation of the blood–CSF barrier with natalizumab prevents an increase of the ChP volume. ChP enlargement is strongly linked to emerging functional impairment as depicted in the mouse models and in multiple sclerosis patients. Our findings identify ChP characteristics as robust and translatable hallmarks of acute and ongoing neuroinflammatory activity in mice and humans that could serve as a promising interspecies marker for translational and reverse-translational approaches.

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This study focuses on the interaction of the three components of the Bacillus cereus

Sodium chloride promotes vascular fibrosis, arterial hypertension, pro-inflammatory immune cell polarization and endothelial dysfunction, all of which might influence outcomes following stroke. But despite enormous translational relevance, the functional importance of sodium chloride in the pathophysiology of acute ischemic stroke is still unclear. In the current study, we show that high-salt diet leads to significantly worse functional outcomes, increased infarct volumes, and a loss of astrocytes and cortical neurons in acute ischemic stroke. While analyzing the underlying pathologic processes, we identified the migrasome as a novel, sodium chloride-driven pathomechanism in acute ischemic stroke. The migrasome was previously described in vitro as a migrating organelle, which incorporates and dispatches cytosol of surrounding cells and plays a role in intercellular signaling, whereas a pathophysiological meaning has not been elaborated. We here confirm previously reported characteristics of the migrasome in vivo. Immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy and proteomic analyses further demonstrate that the migrasome incorporates and dispatches cytosol of surrounding neurons following stroke. The clinical relevance of these findings is emphasized by neuropathological examinations, which detected migrasome formation in infarcted brain parenchyma of human stroke patients. In summary, we demonstrate that high-salt diet aggravates stroke outcomes, and we characterize the migrasome as a novel mechanism in acute stroke pathophysiology.

The Nhe enterotoxin from Bacillus cereus is known to induce cytotoxicity on Vero and CaCo-2 cells by ordered binding of its single components NheA, NheB, and NheC. This study aimed to elucidate functional sites on NheB by identifying the epitopes of the neutralizing monoclonal antibodies 1E11 and 2B11. The binding regions of both antibodies were determined by using recombinant NheB fragments and synthetic peptides. The antigenic site of antibody 1E11 was located within the amino acids 321 to 341 of NheB, whereas reactivity of antibody 2B11 was dependent on the presence of amino acids 122 to 150 and on conformation. Both antibodies were able to bind simultaneously to NheB and did not interfere with target cell binding as shown by immunofluorescence microscopy. A set of neutralization assays revealed that antibody 2B11 most likely interfered with the interaction between NheB and NheC both on the epithelium cell surface and in solution. In contrast, antibody 1E11 inhibited association between NheA and cell-bound NheB in a competitive manner, and effectively neutralized Nhe cytotoxicity on a variety of human cell lines. This distinct mechanism further supports that NheA is the key component during the Nhe mode of action and the C-terminal epitope recognized by antibody 1E11 points to an important functional region of NheB. Bacillus cereus is a major food-borne pathogen known to produce a range of cytotoxins (for reviews, see references 27 and 28). There are four major toxins involved in food poisoning cases, namely, the emetic toxin (cereulide), a dodecadepsipeptide (1), and the three-component diarrheal toxins hemolysin BL (Hbl) (4, 5) and nonhemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe) (23). In addition, a single-component protein toxin (cytotoxin K) causing severe necrotic enteritis was identified in a rare B. cereus strain (22), for which the name "Bacillus cytotoxis" has been proposed (19). Studies on the prevalence of the nhe and hbl genes (10,15,16,26,31) in B. cereus indicate that all strains of B. cereus possess the genes of at least one of the diarrheal enterotoxins, and Nhe is the most prevalent enterotoxin harbored by B. cereus. In addition, the overall B. cereus-associated cytotoxic activity is correlated with the Nhe expression level (24).Nhe was first identified in strain NVH 0075/95, which was isolated following a large food-poisoning outbreak in Norway (23). It is a three-component toxin and consists of the exoproteins NheA (41.0 kDa), NheB (39.8 kDa), and NheC (36.5 kDa) (14). Studies using cell-based tests to assay Nhe-specific cytotoxicity demonstrated toxic effects in Vero, GH4, and CaCo-2 cells (17,20,21). The susceptibility of other cell lines has not yet been tested. It is known that Nhe has intrinsic pore-forming capacity (11) and that maximum toxicity will be reached when the ratio of the individual components is 10:10:1 for NheA, NheB, and NheC, respectively (20). NheB and NheC are mostly ␣-helical molecules with a predicted ␤-tongue, showing structural similarities to ClyA (11). The region of the predicte...