It has recently been shown that individuals residing in rural, indigenous communities rely on geocentric conceptualizations of space, e.g., north/south/east/west, even after they have shifted to a language that is known to favour egocentric conceptualizations, e.g., right/left. In this paper we explore how this combination works in practice by conducting a study in a previously non-investigated indigenous community of Mexico, the Ngiguas. We used a verbal localization task for community-scale relations. We filmed the responses of early bilinguals in Ngigua (Otomanguean) and in Spanish as well as of a control group of Spanish monolinguals from the same rural community. Statistical analysis of speech and co-speech gestures reveals that bilinguals favour geocentric gestures and direct pointing in both languages, associating them with topological and deictic terms. Against our predictions, Spanish monolinguals also use high rates of geocentric gestures that they frequently combine with cardinal terms. In sum, the Ngigua data show that geocentric conceptualizations can be transmitted to monolingual generations via co-speech gestures, including in a language where egocentric conceptualizations prevail in other settings.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: Among the questions that remain open is whether bilingualism leads to simplification of alternatives in language in order to reduce cognitive load. This hypothesis has been supported by evidence showing that bilinguals generalize the Spanish copula estar ‘to be’ faster than monolinguals. Yet, other studies found no such clear trend. While conceptual transfer could account for the conflicting evidence in the literature, its role has not been demonstrated. Our study aims to fill this gap by testing simplification in Spanish copula choice among bilinguals and, in particular, the role of transfer. Design/methodology/approach: We used a contextualized copula choice task, comprising 28 sentences. Data and analysis: Sixty Romani–Spanish bilinguals from Mexico responded to the questionnaire in both Spanish and Romani. A control group of 62 Mexican Spanish monolinguals responded in Spanish. We constructed generalized linear mixed-effects models to analyse the results. Findings/conclusions: Analysis of the results reveals greater extension of estar among bilinguals for individual-level predicates as well as for traits not susceptible to change. Comparison of the responses of bilinguals (in Romani and in Spanish) and of Spanish monolinguals indicates that Romani could be reinforcing the generalization of estar in the Spanish responses of bilinguals. Originality: To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine copula choice in bilingual mode. In addition, it brings evidence from an under-researched community with little normative pressure. Significance/implications: Our study shows that conceptual transfer may be driving the extension of estar among bilinguals.

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This research aims to investigate the innovative use of the subject clitic pronouns lo, la, le in attributive predications, e.g., O xabe lašo lo 'The dinner is good', in Romani spoken in the State of Veracruz, Mexico. The analysis of a 15-hour conversational corpus in Romani shows that the Romani copula si is used in variation with the subject clitic pronouns in l-in third person, affirmative clauses. In addition, sixty Romani-Spanish bilinguals from Veracruz responded to a contextualized copula choice task. Generalised linear mixed effect models were constructed to analyse the results. The analysis shows that the clitics are extremely dynamic in third person affirmative sentences and further reveals the linguistic variables that determine their use.

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