PurposeAge-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a frequent, complex disorder in elderly of European ancestry. Risk profiles and treatment options have changed considerably over the years, which may have affected disease prevalence and outcome. We determined the prevalence of early and late AMD in Europe from 1990 to 2013 using the European Eye Epidemiology (E3) consortium, and made projections for the future.DesignMeta-analysis of prevalence data.ParticipantsA total of 42 080 individuals 40 years of age and older participating in 14 population-based cohorts from 10 countries in Europe.MethodsAMD was diagnosed based on fundus photographs using the Rotterdam Classification. Prevalence of early and late AMD was calculated using random-effects meta-analysis stratified for age, birth cohort, gender, geographic region, and time period of the study. Best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was compared between late AMD subtypes; geographic atrophy (GA) and choroidal neovascularization (CNV).Main Outcome MeasuresPrevalence of early and late AMD, BCVA, and number of AMD cases.ResultsPrevalence of early AMD increased from 3.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.1%–5.0%) in those aged 55–59 years to 17.6% (95% CI 13.6%–21.5%) in those aged ≥85 years; for late AMD these figures were 0.1% (95% CI 0.04%–0.3%) and 9.8% (95% CI 6.3%–13.3%), respectively. We observed a decreasing prevalence of late AMD after 2006, which became most prominent after age 70. Prevalences were similar for gender across all age groups except for late AMD in the oldest age category, and a trend was found showing a higher prevalence of CNV in Northern Europe. After 2006, fewer eyes and fewer ≥80-year-old subjects with CNV were visually impaired (P = 0.016). Projections of AMD showed an almost doubling of affected persons despite a decreasing prevalence. By 2040, the number of individuals in Europe with early AMD will range between 14.9 and 21.5 million, and for late AMD between 3.9 and 4.8 million.ConclusionWe observed a decreasing prevalence of AMD and an improvement in visual acuity in CNV occuring over the past 2 decades in Europe. Healthier lifestyles and implementation of anti–vascular endothelial growth factor treatment are the most likely explanations. Nevertheless, the numbers of affected subjects will increase considerably in the next 2 decades. AMD continues to remain a significant public health problem among Europeans.

Although all stages of diabetic retinopathy (DR) have been declining since 1980 in populations with improved diabetes control, the crude prevalence of visual impairment and blindness caused by DR has increased in recent years. This is mainly due to the global increase of type 2 diabetes. Screening for DR is essential to detect referable cases that need timely full ophthalmic examination and treatment in order to avoid permanent visual loss. In recent years personalized screening intervals taking into account several risk factors has been proposed with a good costeffectiveness ratios. However, limited resources are available for nationwide screening programs. New technologies such as scanning confocal ophthalmology with ultrawide field imaging and mobile hand-held devices, tele-ophthalmology for remote grading and artificial intelligence for automated detection and classification of DR are changing screening strategies and improving its cost-effectiveness. The emergent evidence that retinal imaging is useful for identifying subjects at risk of cardiovascular disease or cognitive impairment is also a challenge that could change the concept of DR screening into a more broad examination, not limited to prevent sight-threatening disease. Box. Searching strategy and selection criteria We identified references for this review through searches of PubMed and Google Scholar for articles published in English up to November 7 th , 2019. The key words used included "diabetic retinopathy", "screening of diabetic retinopathy", "retinal imaging", "retinal neurodegeneration", "tele-ophthalmology", "artificial intelligence", "diabetic complications", "diabetic retinopathy and cardiovascular disease", "diabetic retinopathy and dementia". These keywords were used as single search terms or in combination. We also searched the reference list of original articles, clinical guidelines, systematic reviews and meta-analyses for further relevant material. All the authors conducted the literature search but with pre-specified assigned areas. Articles were initially selected for inclusion on the basis of the opinion of the contributing authors, with each section covered by two or three authors with particular expertise. The selected references were reviewed by all the members of the authorship when reading successive drafts. DCCT, UKPDS Chew EY, Davis MD, Danis RP, et al.; Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Eye Study Research Group. The effects of medical management on the progression of diabetic retinopathy in persons with type 2 diabetes: the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD) Eye Study. Ophthalmology 2014;121:2443-2451 Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Follow-On (ACCORDION) Eye Study Group and the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Follow-On (ACCORDION) Study Group. Persistent Effects of Intensive Glycemic Control on Retinopathy in Type 2 Diabetes in the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD) Follow-On Study. Diabetes Care. 2016 Jul;39(7):1089-100 Ot...

Purpose. To evaluate the changes in thickness of individual inner and outer macular and peripapillary retinal layers in diabetes. Methods. 124 subjects (124 eyes) were enrolled: 74 diabetics and 50 controls. Macular edema, proliferative diabetic retinopathy (DR), any intraocular treatment and refractive error >6 diopters were the main exclusion criteria. Full ophthalmic examination, stereoscopic fundus photography, and spectral domain-OCT were performed. After automatic retinal segmentation (layering) in 5 layers, the thickness of each layer was calculated, and values compared among groups. Results. Thirty patients had no DR, 44 patients had non proliferative DR. A significant increase of inner plexiform and nuclear layers was found in DR eyes versus controls (P < 0.001). A significant decrease (P < 0.01) of retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) and at specific sites of retinal ganglion cell layer (P = 0.02) was documented in the macula. In the peripapillary area there were no differences between diabetics and controls. Conclusions. Decreased RNFL thickness and increased INL/OPL thickness in diabetics without DR or with initial DR suggest early alterations in the inner retina. On the contrary, the outer retina seems not to be affected at early stages of DM. Automatic intraretinal layering by SD-OCT may be a useful tool to diagnose and monitor early intraretinal changes in DR.

Background: Early age-related macular degeneration (AMD) has been correlated with different functional alterations, but the exact relationship between fundus lesions and overlying sensitivity is not well known. The aim of this study was to compare fundus-related sensitivity (microperimetry) and fundus autofluorescence (FAF) of the macular area with drusen and pigment abnormalities in early AMD. Methods: 13 consecutive patients with early AMD and visual acuity of 20/20 were studied by means of microperimetry, which automatically analyses macular light differential threshold and fixation patterns. Fundus colour photo and FAF of the macular area were recorded on the same day. Microperimetry was exactly (topographically) superimposed over FAF images. Results: Macular sensitivity significantly decreased over large drusen (11.2 ¡ 5.6 dB, p,0.0001) and over pigment abnormalities (13.1 ¡ 3.6 dB, p,0.0001). When both characteristics were present the reduction was greater if compared with its absence (9.6 ¡ 4.3 versus 15.0 ¡ 4.5 dB, p,0.0001). Sensitivitity reduction was significant in areas with altered FAF when compared with areas with normal FAF (p,0.0001). Conclusions: Increased FAF in early AMD has a functional correlate exactly quantified by microperimetry. In retinal areas affected by early AMD retinal sensitivity deteriorates, despite good visual acuity. Microperimetry may allow the early detection of functional impairment caused by these lesions. Both microperimetry and FAF may be useful to monitor AMD progression.

Choroidal thickness is reduced in diabetic eyes and parallels appearance and evolution of DR. Spectral domain optical coherence tomography clearly confirms in vivo previously reported histopathologic observations. The role of choroid in the pathophysiology of DR needs to be adequately investigated.