Animals utilize hundreds of distinct G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-type chemosensory receptors to detect a diverse array of chemical signals in their environment, including odors, pheromones, and tastants. However, the molecular mechanisms by which these receptors selectively interact with their cognate ligands remain poorly understood. There is growing evidence that many chemosensory receptors exist in multimeric complexes, though little is known about the relative contributions of individual subunits to receptor functions. Here, we report that each of the two subunits in the heteromeric T1R2:T1R3 sweet taste receptor binds sweet stimuli though with distinct affinities and conformational changes. Furthermore, ligand affinities for T1R3 are drastically reduced by the introduction of a single amino acid change associated with decreased sweet taste sensitivity in behaving mice. Thus, individual T1R subunits increase the receptive range of the sweet taste receptor, offering a functional mechanism for phenotypic variations in sweet taste.

TAS1R- and TAS2R-type taste receptors are expressed in the gustatory system, where they detect sweet- and bitter-tasting stimuli, respectively. These receptors are also expressed in subsets of cells within the mammalian gastrointestinal tract, where they mediate nutrient assimilation and endocrine responses. For example, sweeteners stimulate taste receptors on the surface of gut enteroendocrine L cells to elicit an increase in intracellular Ca2+ and secretion of the incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), an important modulator of insulin biosynthesis and secretion. Because of the importance of taste receptors in the regulation of food intake and the alimentary responses to chemostimuli, we hypothesized that differences in taste receptor efficacy may impact glucose homeostasis. To address this issue, we initiated a candidate gene study within the Amish Family Diabetes Study and assessed the association of taste receptor variants with indicators of glucose dysregulation, including a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes mellitus and high levels of blood glucose and insulin during an oral glucose tolerance test. We report that a TAS2R haplotype is associated with altered glucose and insulin homeostasis. We also found that one SNP within this haplotype disrupts normal responses of a single receptor, TAS2R9, to its cognate ligands ofloxacin, procainamide and pirenzapine. Together, these findings suggest that a functionally compromised TAS2R receptor negatively impacts glucose homeostasis, providing an important link between alimentary chemosensation and metabolic disease.

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) is thought to act on the brain to induce fever, neuroendocrine activation, and behavioral changes during disease through induction of prostaglandins at the blood-brain barrier (BBB). However, despite the fact that IL-1 beta induces the prostaglandin-synthesizing enzyme cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in brain vascular cells, no study has established the presence of IL-1 receptor type 1 (IL-1R1) protein in these cells. Furthermore, although COX inhibitors attenuate expression of the activation marker c-Fos in the preoptic and paraventricular hypothalamus after administration of IL-1 beta or bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), they do not alter c-Fos induction in other structures known to express prostaglandin receptors. The present study thus sought to establish whether IL-1R1 protein is present and functional in the rat cerebral vasculature. In addition, the distribution of IL-1R1 protein was compared to IL-1 beta- and LPS-induced COX-2 expression. IL-1R1-immunoreactive perivascular cells were mostly found in choroid plexus and meninges. IL-1R1-immunoreactive vessels were seen throughout the brain, but concentrated in the preoptic area, subfornical organ, supraoptic hypothalamus, and to a lesser extent in the paraventricular hypothalamus, cortex, nucleus of the solitary tract, and ventrolateral medulla. Vascular IL-1R1-ir was associated with an endothelial cell marker, not found in arterioles, and corresponded to the induction patterns of phosphorylated c-Jun and inhibitory-factor kappa B mRNA upon IL-1 beta stimulation, and colocalized with peripheral IL-1 beta- or LPS-induced COX-2 expression. These observations indicate that functional IL-1R1s are expressed in endothelial cells of brain venules and suggest that vascular IL-1R1 distribution is an important factor determining BBB prostaglandin-dependent activation of brain structures during infection.

-The glucose-dependent secretion of the insulinotropic hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is a critical step in the regulation of glucose homeostasis. Two molecular mechanisms have separately been suggested as the primary mediator of intestinal glucose-stimulated GLP-1 secretion (GSGS): one is a metabotropic mechanism requiring the sweet taste receptor type 2 (T1R2) ϩ type 3 (T1R3) while the second is a metabolic mechanism requiring ATP-sensitive K ϩ (KATP) channels. By quantifying sugar-stimulated hormone secretion in receptor knockout mice and in rats receiving Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB), we found that both of these mechanisms contribute to GSGS; however, the mechanisms exhibit different selectivity, regulation, and localization. T1R3Ϫ/Ϫ mice showed impaired glucose and insulin homeostasis during an oral glucose challenge as well as slowed insulin granule exocytosis from isolated pancreatic islets. Glucose, fructose, and sucralose evoked GLP-1 secretion from T1R3 ϩ/ϩ , but not T1R3 Ϫ/Ϫ , ileum explants; this secretion was not mimicked by the K ATP channel blocker glibenclamide. T1R2 Ϫ/Ϫ mice showed normal glycemic control and partial small intestine GSGS, suggesting that T1R3 can mediate GSGS without T1R2. Robust GSGS that was K ATP channeldependent and glucose-specific emerged in the large intestine of T1R3 Ϫ/Ϫ mice and RYGB rats in association with elevated fecal carbohydrate throughout the distal gut. Our results demonstrate that the small and large intestines utilize distinct mechanisms for GSGS and suggest novel large intestine targets that could mimic the improved glycemic control seen after RYGB.glucagon-like peptide-1; insulin; T1R3; glucose-stimulated potassium ion channel; enteroendocrine l cells THE BODY TIGHTLY REGULATES blood glucose levels, and disruption of the homeostatic mechanisms that underlie normal glycemic control can have significant deleterious effects. For example, the prolonged hyperglycemia associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, neuropathy, retinopathy, kidney disease, and death (66). Hormonal signals arising in the gastrointestinal tract are key components of the homeostatic mechanisms controlling blood glucose levels after a meal. Ingestion of carbohydrate and other nutrients promotes the secretion of insulinotropic hormones such as glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) from the gut, resulting in a surge of insulin production before blood glucose levels rise (11,32). This early response contributes to increased glucose disposal during absorption and helps to prevent hyperglycemia. GLP-1 mimetics and inhibitors of GLP-1 degradation help increase insulin biosynthesis and secretion from pancreatic ␤-cells and are valuable additions to previous treatment regimens for T2DM patients (11,32).Despite the importance of intestinal glucose sensing and glucose-stimulated gut hormone secretion, the mechanisms underlying these processes have remained elusive. The distinct glucose-sensing mechanisms found in the pancreas and in the gustat...

) but display functional somatostatin receptors mainly of the sstÔ and sstµ subtypes (Mounier et al. 1995). In keeping with these observations, both somatostatin and octreotide, a long-acting preferential agonist at sstµ receptor subtypes, inhibit basal GH release from GC cells (Mounier et al. 1995). In order to understand the mechanisms underlying the sustained release of GH by GC cells in the absence of external stimulation, we analysed their membrane activity and cytosolic Ca¥ concentration ([Ca¥] Ca¥ current activated at −33·6 ± 0·4 mV (holding potential (Vh), −40 mV), peaked at −1·8 ± 1·3 mV, was reduced by nifedipine and enhanced by S-(+)-SDZ 202 791. A TÏR_type Ca¥ current activated at −41·7 ± 2·7 mV (Vh, −80 or −60 mV), peaked at −9·2 ± 3·0 mV, was reduced by low concentrations of Ni¥ (40 ìÒ) or Cd¥ (10 ìÒ) and was toxin resistant. Parallel experiments revealed the expression of the class E calcium channel á1-subunit mRNA. 3. The K¤ channel blockers TEA (25 mÒ) and charybdotoxin (10-100 nÒ) enhanced spike amplitude andÏor duration. Apamin (100 nÒ) also strongly reduced the after-spike hyperpolarization. The outward K¤ tail current evoked by a depolarizing step that mimicked an action potential reversed at −69·8 ± 0·3 mV, presented two components, lasted 2-3 s and was totally blocked by Cd¥ (400 ìÒ). 4. The slow pacemaker depolarization (3·5 ± 0·4 s) that separated consecutive spikes corresponded to a 2-to 3-fold increase in membrane resistance, was strongly Na¤ sensitive but TTX insensitive. 5. Computer simulations showed that pacemaker activity can be reproduced by a minimum of six currents: an L-type Ca¥ current underlies the rising phase of action potentials that are repolarized by a delayed rectifier and Ca¥-activated K¤ currents. In between spikes, the decay of Ca¥-activated K¤ currents and a persistent inward cationic current depolarize the membrane, activate the TÏR-type Ca¥ current and initiate a new cycle.