As many as 20-70% of patients undergoing breast conserving surgery require repeat surgeries due to a close or positive surgical margin diagnosed post-operatively [1]. Currently there are no widely accepted tools for intra-operative margin assessment which is a significant unmet clinical need. Our group has developed a first-generation optical visible spectral imaging platform to image the molecular composition of breast tumor margins and has tested it clinically in 48 patients in a previously published study [2]. The goal of this paper is to report on the performance metrics of the system and compare it to clinical criteria for intra-operative tumor margin assessment. The system was found to have an average signal to noise ratio (SNR) >100 and <15% error in the extraction of optical properties indicating that there is sufficient SNR to leverage the differences in optical properties between negative and close/positive margins. The probe had a sensing depth of 0.5-2.2 mm over the wavelength range of 450-600 nm which is consistent with the pathologic criterion for clear margins of 0-2 mm. There was <1% cross-talk between adjacent channels of the multi-channel probe which shows that multiple sites can be measured simultaneously with negligible cross-talk between adjacent sites. Lastly, the system and measurement procedure were found to be reproducible when evaluated with repeated measures, with a low coefficient of variation (<0.11). The only aspect of the system not optimized for intra-operative use was the imaging time. The manuscript includes a discussion of how the speed of the system can be improved to work within the time constraints of an intra-operative setting.

Summary Optical spectral imaging has the ability to identify differences between benign and malignant tissue in breast tumor margins. The use of this rapid, non-destructive technology could help reduce the need for second operations in women desiring breast conservation therapy (BCT).

We propose the use of a robust, biopsy needle-based, fiberoptic tool for routine clinical quantification of tumor oxygenation at the time of diagnostic biopsy for breast cancer. The purpose of this study was to show diffuse reflectance spectroscopy as a quantitative tool to measure oxygenation levels in the vascular compartment of breast cancers in vivo via an optical biopsy technique. Thirty-five patients undergoing surgical treatment for breast cancer were recruited for the study at Duke University Medical Center. Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy was performed on the tumors in situ before surgical resection, followed by needle-core biopsy of the optically measured tissue. Hemoglobin saturation and total hemoglobin content were quantified from 76 optical spectratissue biopsy pairs, consisting of 20 malignant, 23 benign, and 33 adipose tissues. Hemoglobin saturation in malignant tissues was significantly lower than nonmalignant tissues (P < 0.002) and was negatively correlated with tumor size and pathologic tumor category (P < 0.05). Hemoglobin saturation was positively correlated with total hemoglobin content in malignant tissues (P < 0.02). HER2/neu-amplified tumors exhibited significantly higher total hemoglobin content (P < 0.05) and significantly higher hemoglobin saturation (P < 0.02), which is consistent with a model of increased angiogenesis and tumor perfusion promoted by HER2/neu amplification. Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy could aid in prognosis and prediction in breast cancer via quantitative assessment of tumor physiology at the time of diagnostic biopsy.

IntroductionResidual cancer following breast conserving surgery increases the risk of local recurrence and mortality. Margin assessment presents an unmet clinical need. Breast tissue is markedly heterogeneous, which makes distinguishing small foci of cancer within the spectrum of normal tissue potentially challenging. This is further complicated by the heterogeneity as a function of menopausal status. Optical spectroscopy can provide surgeons with intra-operative diagnostic tools. Here, we evaluate ex-vivo breast tissue and determine which sources of optical contrast have the potential to detect malignancy at the margins in women of differing breast composition.MethodsDiffuse reflectance spectra were measured from 595 normal and 38 malignant sites from the margins of 104 partial mastectomy patients. All statistical tests were performed using Wilcoxon Rank-Sum tests. Normal and malignant sites were compared before stratifying the data by tissue type and depth and computing statistical differences. The frequencies of the normal tissue types were separated by menopausal status and compared to the corresponding optical properties.ResultsThe mean reduced scattering coefficient, < μs' >, and concentration of total hemoglobin, [THb]), showed statistical differences between malignant (< μs' > : 8.96 cm-1 ± 2.24MAD, [THb]: 42.70 μM ± 29.31MAD) compared to normal sites (< μs' > : 7.29 cm-1 ± 2.15MAD, [THb]: 32.09 μM ± 16.73MAD) (P < 0.05). The sites stratified according to normal tissue type (fibro-glandular (FG), fibro-adipose (FA), and adipose (A)) or disease type (invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) and ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS)) showed that FG exhibited increased < μs' > and A showed increased [β-carotene] within normal tissues. Scattering differentiated between most malignant sites, DCIS (9.46 cm-1 ± 1.06MAD) and IDC (8.00 cm-1 ± 1.81MAD), versus A (6.50 cm-1 ± 1.95MAD). [β-carotene] showed marginal differences between DCIS (19.00 μM ± 6.93MAD, and FG (15.30 μM ± 5.64MAD). [THb] exhibited statistical differences between positive sites (92.57 μM ± 18.46MAD) and FG (34.12 μM ± 22.77MAD), FA (28.63 μM ± 14.19MAD), and A (30.36 μM ± 14.86MAD). The diagnostic ability of the optical parameters was affected by distance of tumor from the margin as well as menopausal status. Due to decreased fibrous content and increased adipose content, normal sites in post-menopausal patients exhibited lower < μs' >, but higher [β-carotene] than pre-menopausal patients.ConclusionsThe data indicate that the ability of an optical parameter to differentiate benign from malignant breast tissues may be dictated by patient demographics. Scattering differentiated between malignant and adipose sites and would be most effective in post-menopausal women. [β-carotene] or [THb] may be more applicable in pre-menopausal women to differentiate malignant from fibrous sites. Patient demographics are therefore an important component to incorporate into optical characterization of breast specimens.

Breast conserving surgery, in which the breast tumor and surrounding normal tissue are removed, is the primary mode of treatment for invasive and in situ carcinomas of the breast, conditions that affect nearly 200,000 women annually. Of these nearly 200,000 patients who undergo this surgical procedure, between 20–70% of them may undergo additional surgeries to remove tumor that was left behind in the first surgery, due to the lack of intra-operative tools which can detect whether the boundaries of the excised specimens are free from residual cancer. Optical techniques have many attractive attributes which may make them useful tools for intra-operative assessment of breast tumor resection margins. In this manuscript, we discuss clinical design criteria for intra-operative breast tumor margin assessment, and review optical techniques appied to this problem. In addition, we report on the development and clinical testing of quantitative diffuse reflectance imaging (Q-DRI) as a potential solution to this clinical need. Q-DRI is a spectral imaging tool which has been applied to 56 resection margins in 48 patients at Duke University Medical Center. Clear sources of contrast between cancerous and cancer-free resection margins were identified with the device, and resulted in an overall accuracy of 75% in detecting positive margins.