Introducing complementary food does not increase intestinal inflammation according to this marker. Studies to assess fecal calprotectin levels in breastfeeding and mixed-fed infants born to HIV-infected mothers living in resource-constrained settings, and to evaluate potential protective effects of calprotectin in early infancy, are recommended in the continuing effort to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for increased risk of HIV transmission through mixed-feeding.

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Mastitis has been implicated as a risk factor for mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV-1 through breast-feeding. Maternal vitamin A deficiency is also associated with increased MTCT, as well as with episodes of mastitis in lactating animals. This review describes the complex interrelationship between vitamin A, mastitis, and MTCT of HIV-1 via mothers' milk. Current gaps in knowledge, as well as recommendations for future research efforts, are also discussed.

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