Interrogating biological systems is often limited by access to biological probes. The emergence of "click chemistry" has revolutionized bioconjugate chemistry by providing facile reaction conditions amenable to both biologic molecules and small molecule probes such as fluorophores, toxins, or therapeutics. One particularly popular version is the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (AAC) reaction, which has spawned new alternatives such as the strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction, among others. This focused review highlights practical approaches to AAC reactions for the synthesis of peptide or protein bioconjugates and contrasts current challenges and limitations in light of recent advances in the field. The conical success of antibody drug conjugates has expanded the toolbox of linkers and payloads to facilitate practical applications of bioconjugation to create novel therapeutics and biologic probes. The AAC reaction in particular is poised to enable a large set of functionalized molecules as a combinatorial approach to high-throughput bioconjugate generation, screening, and honing of lead compounds.

Background Pressure overload due to aortic stenosis (AS) causes maladaptive ventricular and vascular remodeling that can lead to pulmonary hypertension, heart failure symptoms, and adverse outcomes. Retarding or reversing this maladaptive remodeling and its unfavorable hemodynamic consequences has potential to improve morbidity and mortality. Preclinical models of pressure overload have shown that phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibition is beneficial, however the use of PDE5 inhibitors in patients with AS is controversial because of concerns about vasodilation and hypotension. Methods and Results We evaluated the safety and hemodynamic response of 20 subjects with severe symptomatic AS (mean aortic valve area 0.7±0.2 cm2, ejection fraction 60±14%) who received a single oral dose of sildenafil (40mg or 80mg). Compared to baseline, after 60 minutes sildenafil reduced systemic (−12%, p<0.001) and pulmonary (−29%, p=0.002) vascular resistance, mean pulmonary artery (−25%, p<0.001) and wedge (−17%, p<0.001) pressure, and increased systemic (+13%, p<0.001) and pulmonary (+45%, p<0.001) vascular compliance and stroke volume index (+8%, p=0.01). These changes were not dose dependent. Sildenafil caused a modest decrease in mean systemic arterial pressure (−11%, p<0.001), but was well-tolerated with no episodes of symptomatic hypotension. Conclusions This study shows for the first time that a single dose of a PDE5 inhibitor is safe and well-tolerated in patients with severe AS and is associated with acute improvements in pulmonary and systemic hemodynamics resulting in biventricular unloading. These findings support the need for longer-term studies to evaluate the role of PDE5 inhibition as adjunctive medical therapy in patients with AS.

Background The diabetic heart exhibits increased left ventricular (LV) mass and reduced ventricular function. However, this relationship has not been studied in patients with aortic stenosis (AS), a disease process that causes LV hypertrophy and dysfunction through a distinct mechanism of pressure overload. The aim of this study was to determine how diabetes mellitus (DM) impacts LV remodeling and function in patients with severe AS. Methods and Results Echocardiograms were performed on 114 patients with severe AS [mean aortic valve area (AVA) 0.6 cm2] and included measures of LV remodeling and function. Multivariable linear regression models investigated the independent effect of DM on these aspects of LV structure and function. Compared to non-diabetics (n=60), diabetics (n=54) had increased LV mass, LV end-systolic dimension, LV end-diastolic dimension, and decreased LV ejection fraction (EF) and longitudinal systolic strain (p<0.01 for all). In multivariable analyses adjusting for age, sex, systolic BP, AVA, BSA, and coronary disease, DM was an independent predictor of increased LV mass (β=26g, p=0.01), LV end-systolic dimension (β=0.5cm, p=0.008), and LV end-diastolic dimension (β=0.3cm, p=0.025). After additionally adjusting for LV mass, DM was associated with reduced longitudinal systolic strain (β=1.9%, p=0.023) and a trend toward reduced EF (β=−5%, p=0.09). Among diabetics, insulin use (as a marker of disease severity) was associated with larger LV end-systolic dimension and worse LV function. LV mass was a strong predictor of reduced EF and systolic strain (p<0.001 for both). Conclusions DM has an additive adverse effect on hypertrophic remodeling—increased LV mass and larger cavity dimensions—and is associated with reduced systolic function in patients with AS beyond known factors of pressure overload.

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Adaptive immunity plays a central role in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes. Among past treatment approaches, B cell ablation has yielded unmistakable therapeutic potency; however, global immunosuppression imposes unacceptable risks to a patient population consisting of children. Multivalent antigen arrays represent a compelling strategy for targeted immunosuppression by selectively engaging and inactivating autoreactive B cells. Here, we report the design and characterization of 4-arm polyethylene glycol-insulin (PEG-Ins) conjugates as multivalent arrays for autoreactive B cell engagement. First, we selectively modified human insulin at the B29 residue to retain antigenicity. Next, we conjugated the modified proteins to 20 kDa, 4-arm polyethylene glycol backbones to produce multivalent PEG-Ins constructs. Mass spectrometry, circular dichroism, and dynamic light scattering indicated that the structure of insulin was maintained in the much larger, multivalent construct. PEG-Ins conjugates demonstrated an ex vivo immunological effect in splenocytes harboring an anti-insulin B cell receptor (VH125SD) by inactivating B cells and promoting an anergic phenotype that was downregulated in B cell receptor expression (CD79b), and PEG-Ins conjugates did not mobilize calcium upon B cell receptor stimulation. These data support the further study of PEG-Ins conjugates in animal models of type 1 diabetes.