The circadian clock has a profound effect on gene regulation, controlling rhythmic transcript accumulation for up to half of expressed genes in eukaryotes. Evidence also exists for clock control of mRNA translation, but the extent and mechanisms for this regulation are not known. In Neurospora crassa, the circadian clock generates daily rhythms in the activation of conserved mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways when cells are grown in constant conditions, including rhythmic activation of the well-characterized p38 osmosensing (OS) MAPK pathway. Rhythmic phosphorylation of the MAPK OS-2 (P-OS-2) leads to temporal control of downstream targets of OS-2. We show that osmotic stress in N. crassa induced the phosphorylation of a eukaryotic elongation factor-2 (eEF-2) kinase, radiation sensitivity complementing kinase-2 (RCK-2), and that RCK-2 is necessary for high-level phosphorylation of eEF-2, a key regulator of translation elongation. The levels of phosphorylated RCK-2 and phosphorylated eEF-2 cycle in abundance in wild-type cells but not in cells deleted for OS-2 or the core clock component FREQUENCY (FRQ). Translation extracts from cells grown in constant conditions show decreased translational activity in the late subjective morning, coincident with the peak in eEF-2 phosphorylation, and rhythmic translation of glutathione S-transferase (GST-3) from constitutive mRNA levels in vivo is dependent on circadian regulation of eEF-2 activity. In contrast, rhythms in phosphorylated eEF-2 levels are not necessary for rhythms in accumulation of the clock protein FRQ, indicating that clock control of eEF-2 activity promotes rhythmic translation of specific mRNAs.C ircadian rhythms are the outward manifestation of an endogenous clock mechanism common to nearly all eukaryotes. Depending on the organism and tissue, nearly half of an organism's expressed genes are under control of the circadian clock at the level of transcription (1-4). However, mounting evidence indicates a role for the clock in controlling posttranscriptional mechanisms (5), including translation initiation (6, 7), whereas clock control of translation elongation has not been investigated.The driver of circadian rhythms in Neurospora crassa is an autoregulatory molecular feedback loop composed of the negative elements FREQUENCY (FRQ) and FRQ RNA-interacting helicase (FRH), which inhibit the activity of the positive elements WHITE COLLAR-1 (WC-1) and WC-2 (8-11). WC-1 and WC-2 heterodimerize to form the white collar complex (WCC), which activates transcription of frequency (frq) (8,12,13) and activates transcription of a large set of downstream target genes important for overt rhythmicity (2, 14). One gene directly controlled by the WCC is os-4, which encodes the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase (MAPKKK) in the osmotically sensitive (OS) MAPK pathway (15). Rhythmic transcription of os-4 leads to rhythmic accumulation of the phosphorylated active form of the downstream p38-like mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) OS-2 (16). In Sac...

Neurospora crassa cpc-1 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae GCN4 are homologs specifying transcription activators that drive the transcriptional response to amino acid limitation. The cpc-1 mRNA contains two upstream open reading frames (uORFs) in its >700-nucleotide (nt) 5′ leader, and its expression is controlled at the level of translation in response to amino acid starvation. We used N. crassa cell extracts and obtained data indicating that cpc-1 uORF1 and uORF2 are functionally analogous to GCN4 uORF1 and uORF4, respectively, in controlling translation. We also found that the 5′ region upstream of the main coding sequence of the cpc-1 mRNA extends for more than 700 nucleotides without any in-frame stop codon. For 100 cpc-1 homologs from Pezizomycotina and from selected Basidiomycota, 5′ conserved extensions of the CPC1 reading frame are also observed. Multiple non-AUG near-cognate codons (NCCs) in the CPC1 reading frame upstream of uORF2, some deeply conserved, could potentially initiate translation. At least four NCCs initiated translation in vitro. In vivo data were consistent with initiation at NCCs to produce N-terminally extended N. crassa CPC1 isoforms. The pivotal role played by CPC1, combined with its translational regulation by uORFs and NCC utilization, underscores the emerging significance of noncanonical initiation events in controlling gene expression.