No abstract

Foraging theory predicts the evolution of feeding behaviors that increase consumer fitness. Sponges were among the earliest metazoans on earth and developed a unique filter‐feeding mechanism that does not rely on a nervous system. Once thought indiscriminate, sponges are now known to selectively consume picoplankton, but it is unclear whether this confers any benefit. Additionally, sponges consume dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and detritus, but relative preferences for these resources are unknown. We quantified suspension feeding by the giant barrel sponge Xestospongia muta on Conch Reef, Florida, to examine relationships between diet choice, food resource availability, and foraging efficiency. Sponges consistently preferred cyanobacteria over other picoplankton, which were preferred over detritus and DOC; nevertheless, the sponge diet was mostly DOC (∼70%) and detritus (∼20%). Consistent with foraging theory, less‐preferred foods were discriminated against when relatively scarce, but were increasingly accepted as they became relatively more abundant. Food uptake was limited, likely by post‐capture constraints, yet selective foraging enabled sponges to increase nutritional gains.

No abstract

The structure of Caribbean coral reef communities has been altered by numerous anthropogenic and natural stressors. Demographic studies of key functional groups have furthered efforts to describe and understand these changes. Little is known, however, about the demographics of sponges on coral reefs, despite their abundance and the important functions they perform (e.g., increased habitat complexity, water filtration). We have monitored permanent plots on reefs off Key Largo, Florida, USA, to study the demography of a particularly important species, the giant barrel sponge, Xestospongia muta. From 2000 to 2006, population densities of X. muta significantly increased at sites on Conch Reef by a mean of 46% (range = 16-108%) and on Pickles Reef by a mean of 33%. In 2006, densities of X. muta on Conch Reef ranged from 0.134 to 0.277 sponges/m2, and mean sponge volume was 1488 cm3/m2, with the largest size class of sponges constituting 75% of the total volume. Increased population density resulted from a significant increase in the number of sponges in the smallest size class. Recruit survival did not significantly change through time; however, a significant interaction between season and year on recruitment suggests that large recruitment pulses are driving population increases. Mean yearly recruitment rates ranged from 0.011 to 0.025 recruits x m(-2) x yr(-1), with pulses as high as 0.036 recruits/m2. To explore the demographic processes behind the population increase and determine future population growth of X. muta under present reef conditions, a stage-based matrix modeling approach was used. Variable recruitment pulses and mortality events were hypothesized to be large determinants of the demographic patterns observed for X. muta. Elasticity and life table response analysis revealed that survival of individuals in the largest size class has the greatest effect on population growth. Projections indicate that populations of X. muta will continue to increase under present conditions; however population growth may be negatively affected by continued mortality of the largest individuals from a recently described pathogenic syndrome.

Caribbean coral reefs have been transformed in the past few decades with the demise of reef-building corals, and sponges are now the dominant habitat-forming organisms on most reefs. Competing hypotheses propose that sponge communities are controlled primarily by predatory fishes (top-down) or by the availability of picoplankton to suspension-feeding sponges (bottom-up). We tested these hypotheses on Conch Reef, off Key Largo, Florida, by placing sponges inside and outside predator-excluding cages at sites with less and more planktonic food availability (15 m vs. 30 m depth). There was no evidence of a bottom-up effect on the growth of any of 5 sponge species, and 2 of 5 species grew more when caged at the shallow site with lower food abundance. There was, however, a strong effect of predation by fishes on sponge species that lacked chemical defenses. Sponges with chemical defenses grew slower than undefended species, demonstrating a resource trade-off between growth and the production of secondary metabolites. Surveys of the benthic community on Conch Reef similarly did not support a bottom-up effect, with higher sponge cover at the shallower depth. We conclude that the structure of sponge communities on Caribbean coral reefs is primarily top-down, and predict that removal of sponge predators by overfishing will shift communities toward faster-growing, undefended species that better compete for space with threatened reef-building corals.