Violent conflicts are quite often perceived as a destructive and negative phenomenon, and there is little understanding of how they also offer opportunities for a positive change in the society. In particular, little is understood about how violent conflicts and development processes interact and create positive changes in local institutions and practices. This article focuses on such interactions observed amongst the Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) in the Koshi Hills of Nepal, as the Livelihoods and Forestry Programme (LFP) worked through the conflict period. It demonstrates that the Maoist conflict contributed in several ways to enhance the pro-poor outcomes of development actions. We show that the conflict helped empower the marginalised groups, improve their access to community resources, and bring about important changes within the local institutions and practices, contributing to equitable resource management. We suggest that there are positive sides of a violent conflict, where development interventions need to focus on. We also argue that development brings about equitable outcomes if it is complemented with local level advocacy in favour of the poor and marginalised groups.

Abstract:It is widely believed that Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) can help community organisations improve their internal learning and governance. However, the processes of programme monitoring and evaluation as practised by many organisations lack the elements of community participation and ownership and the appreciation of its contribution to community learning. Wider lessons on participatory development demonstrate that only locallyinitiated and community-led monitoring can improve communities' performance and change their institutional practices. Drawing on the recent experience of Livelihoods and Forestry Programme (LFP), this paper makes the case for community-generated planning, selfmonitoring and evaluation for adaptive learning and good governance in Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs) in Nepal. These processes, conceptualised as Adaptive Learning and Action (ALA), have enabled CFUGs to identify their vision, formulate activities to achieve the vision, and regularly monitor the progress against the identified indicators. The process has also enhanced transparency, participation and accountability in CFUG governance.