The hybrid power system is a combination of renewable energy power plants and conventional energy power plants. This integration causes power quality issues including poor settling times and higher transient contents. The main issue of such interconnection is the frequency variations caused in the hybrid power system. Load Frequency Controller (LFC) design ensures the reliable and efficient operation of the power system. The main function of LFC is to maintain the system frequency within safe limits, hence keeping power at a specific range. An LFC should be supported with modern and intelligent control structures for providing the adequate power to the system. This paper presents a comprehensive review of several LFC structures in a diverse configuration of a power system. First of all, an overview of a renewable energy-based power system is provided with a need for the development of LFC. The basic operation was studied in single-area, multi-area and multi-stage power system configurations. Types of controllers developed on different techniques studied with an overview of different control techniques were utilized. The comparative analysis of various controllers and strategies was performed graphically. The future scope of work provided lists the potential areas for conducting further research. Finally, the paper concludes by emphasizing the need for better LFC design in complex power system environments.

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Photovoltaic (P.V.) systems have become an emerging field for power generation by using renewable energy (RE) sources to overcome the usage of conventional combustible fuels and the massive release of dangerous gases. The efficient operation of the PV system is vital to extracting the maximum power from the PV source. For this, a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm works with a DC–DC converter to extract maximum power from the P.V. system. Two main issues may arise with the involvement of a converter: (1) to locate M.P.P and (2) the performance of the PV model in varying weather conditions. Therefore, designing any converter gain has the utmost significance; thus, the proposed work is on non-isolated boost converters. To calculate the values of specific parameters such as input capacitor, output capacitor, and inductor, the averaging state-space modeling typically uses governing equations. In this research, the formula of the input capacitor is derived through the average state-space modeling of the boost converter, which signifies the relation between input and output capacitors. From the results, it has been proven that the input capacitor efficiently performs when the input capacitor is half of the output capacitor. At an irradiance level of 1000 W/m2, the system shows stable behavior with a fast convergence speed of 0.00745 s until the irradiance falls to a value of 400 W/m2. The system is less stable during the morning and the evening when irradiance falls are very low.

The world is rapidly integrating renewable energy resources into the existing grid systems. However, the unpredictable nature of renewables and uncertain load profiles cause issues such as poor power quality, lower system reliability, complex power management, battery degradation, high operating costs, and lower efficiency. Microgrids can help smart grid technology overcome several problems associated with renewable energy integration. Distant locations can obtain electricity without building extensive transmission infrastructure, cutting development costs, or transmission losses. The intermittent nature of renewable energy sources contributes to microgrid problems such as poor power quality, decreased reliability, and high operating costs. Model predictive control (MPC) is an effective method to address challenging industrial and scientific issues. Advancements in MPC that accept different system constraints have solved multiple concerns in uncertain microgrid systems. MPC applied to three hierarchal control layers in a microgrid resolves the problems of power quality, power sharing, energy management, and economic optimization. This study demonstrates that MPC microgrid control is suitable for low-cost operation, improved management, and reliable control. The shortcomings of recent model predictive control techniques for microgrids are reviewed, and future research directions for MPC microgrids are identified.INDEX TERMS Microgrids, renewable energy resources, model predictive control, power quality enhancement, energy management system, hybrid energy storage system, demand side management, demand response, distributed systems

Microgrids are an emerging technology that offers many benefits compared with traditional power grids, including increased reliability, reduced energy costs, improved energy security, environmental benefits, and increased flexibility. However, several challenges are associated with microgrid technology, including high capital costs, technical complexity, regulatory challenges, interconnection issues, maintenance, and operation requirements. Through an in-depth analysis of various research areas and technical aspects of microgrid development, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the strategies and technologies required to overcome these challenges. By assessing the current state of microgrid development in Pakistan and drawing lessons from international best practices, our research highlights the unique opportunities microgrids present for tackling energy poverty, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and promoting sustainable economic growth. Ultimately, this research article contributes to the growing knowledge of microgrids and their role in addressing global sustainability issues. It offers practical recommendations for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and local communities in Pakistan and beyond.