It is shown, by direct numerical simulations, that the skin-friction drag in a fully developed channel can be sustained below that corresponding to the laminar profile when the flow is subjected to surface blowing and suction in the form of an upstream travelling wave. A key mechanism that induces the sub-laminar drag is the creation of positive (negative) Reynolds shear stress in the wall region, where normally negative (positive) Reynolds shear stress is expected given the mean shear. This mechanism is contained in the linearized Navier–Stokes equations, thus allowing linear analysis of the observed phenomena. When applied to a fully developed turbulent channel flow, skin-friction drag is also significantly reduced by an upstream travelling wave, demonstrating that the surface blowing and suction in the form of such a wave is also effective in fully developed turbulent flows. Consideration of the energy budget shows a possibility of net drag reduction in turbulent channel flows with the present open-loop control.

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Our results suggest that the CD26/DPP4 level on blood T cells was associated with glucose control status in patients with T2DM.

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