Matters of sexual consent and sexual assault are hotly debated issues among professionals and laypersons alike. A widespread misconception of sexual assault is that most victims of sexual assault sustain significant physical trauma. It is the purpose of this review article to compare the patterns of physical injury (both genital and extragenital) in victims of sexual assault and participants of consensual sex to conclude if physical injury alone can indicate whether consent was given. Interpretations of injury have great forensic significance as it can influence the outcome of sexual assault cases. Several articles indicate that extragenital injuries are commonly found in sexual assault victims (46%-82%) and that most of such injuries are deemed minor. Articles report a wide range of genital injury detection rates in both sexual assault victims (6%-87%) and consensual sex participants (6%-73%). Usage of different examination techniques may partly explain the wide range of detection rates reported. Out of all those who sustained genital injuries, only a small portion of people required hospitalization. In both consensual and sexual assault cases, genital injuries in the 6 o'clock position were most common. Studies of genital injury lacked standardization of factors that significantly influence the results, such as time to examination after sex, examination techniques, and injury severity scales. Therefore, medicolegal personnel should be aware that sexual assault victims can present with a wide range of physical trauma and should avoid relying on physical trauma alone to conclude whether consent was present.

After the development of the atomic and hydrogen weapons, nuclear deterrence has been commonly viewed as the ultimate form of deterrence among civilians and politicians. Throughout the Cold War and even in the present, various nations strived to initiate their nuclear weapons program to enhance national security and presence in international affairs. However, has our fear of nuclear weapons blinded us from objectively evaluating its effectiveness in deterring conflicts and wars? This paper aims to evaluate nuclear deterrence and conventional deterrence to determine which is effective. Components of deterrence are discussed to determine the characteristics of nuclear and conventional deterrence. In addition, various historical events and defense technologies are analyzed.

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