BackgroundCurrent efforts are underway to quantify the chemical concentration in a treated air space that elicits a spatial repellent (deterrent) response in a vector population. Such information will facilitate identifying the optimum active ingredient (AI) dosage and intervention coverage important for the development of spatial repellent tools – one of several novel strategies being evaluated for vector-borne disease control. This study reports initial findings from air sampling experiments conducted under field conditions to describe the relationship between air concentrations of repellent AIs and deterrent behavior in the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti.MethodsAir samples were taken inside and outdoors of experimental huts located in Pu Tuey Village, Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand in conjunction with mosquito behavioral evaluations. A mark-release-recapture study design using interception traps was used to measure deterrency of Ae. aegypti against 0.00625% metofluthrin coils and DDT-treated fabric (2g/m2) within separate experimental trials. Sentinel mosquito cohorts were positioned adjacent to air sampling locations to monitor knock down responses to AI within the treated air space. Air samples were analyzed using two techniques: the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Compendium Method TO-10A and thermal desorption (TD).ResultsBoth the USEPA TO-10A and TD air sampling methods were able to detect and quantify volatized AIs under field conditions. Air samples indicated concentrations of both repellent chemicals below thresholds required for toxic responses (mortality) in mosquitoes. These concentrations elicited up to a 58% and 70% reduction in Ae. aegypti entry (i.e., deterrency) into treated experimental huts using metofluthrin coils and DDT-treated fabric, respectively. Minimal knock down was observed in sentinel mosquito cohorts positioned adjacent to air sampling locations during both chemical evaluations.ConclusionsThis study is the first to describe two air sampling methodologies that are appropriate for detecting and quantifying repellent chemicals within a treated air space during mosquito behavior evaluations. Results demonstrate that the quantity of AI detected by the mosquito vector, Ae. aegypti, that elicits repellency is far lower than that needed for toxicity. These findings have important implications for evaluation and optimization of new vector control tools that function through mosquito behavior modification as opposed to mortality.

Adult mosquitoes in the Anopheles maculatus group were surveyed from different regions of Thailand and five different species were morphologically identified, including Anopheles maculatus, Anopheles sawadwongporni, Anopheles notanandai, Anopheles dravidicus, and Anopheles willmori. Blood-feeding activity and host preference of two species, Anopheles maculatus and Anopheles sawadwongporni, were observed during a one-year period at Pu Teuy Village, Sai Yok District, Kanchanaburi Province, west-central Thailand. Both species were more prevalent during the wetter period of the year and each had a greater predilection to feed on cattle than humans. Primary feeding activity occurred between 20:00-23:00 and a smaller peak at 01:00-03:00. Findings are discussed relative to the importance of these two vectors for malaria transmission in Pu Teuy. Journal of Vector Ecology 34 (1): 62-69. 2009.

BackgroundPrevious studies have demonstrated contact irritant and spatial repellent behaviors in Aedes aegypti following exposure to sublethal concentrations of chemicals. These sublethal actions are currently being evaluated in the development of a push-pull strategy for Ae. aegypti control. This study reports on mosquito escape responses after exposure to candidate chemicals for a contact irritant focused push-pull strategy using varying concentrations and focal application.MethodsContact irritancy (escape) behavior, knockdown and 24 hour mortality rates were quantified in populations of female Ae. aegypti under laboratory conditions and validated in the field (Thailand and Peru) using experimental huts. Evaluations were conducted using varying concentrations and treatment surface area coverage (SAC) of three pyrethroid insecticides: alphacypermethrin, lambacyhalothrin and deltamethrin.ResultsUnder laboratory conditions, exposure of Ae. aegypti to alphacypermethrin using the standard field application rate (FAR) resulted in escape responses at 25% and 50% SAC that were comparable with escape responses at 100% SAC. Significant escape responses were also observed at <100% SAC using ½FAR of all test compounds. In most trials, KD and 24 hour mortality rates were higher in mosquitoes that did not escape than in those that escaped. In Thailand, field validation studies indicated an early time of exit (by four hours) and 40% increase in escape using ½FAR of alphacypermethrin at 75% SAC compared to a matched chemical-free control. In Peru, however, the maximum increase in Ae. aegypti escape from alphacypermethrin-treated huts was 11%.Conclusions/Significance Results presented here suggest a potential role for sublethal and focal application of contact irritant chemicals in an Ae. aegypti push-pull strategy to reduce human–vector contact inside treated homes. However, the impact of an increase in escape response on dengue virus transmission is currently unknown and will depend on rate of biting on human hosts prior to house exiting.

BackgroundAn integrated approach to reduce densities of adult Aedes aegypti inside homes is currently being evaluated under experimentally controlled field conditions. The strategy combines a spatial repellent (SR) treatment (applied indoors) with the Biogents Sentinel™ (BGS) mosquito trap positioned in the outdoor environment. In essence, when combined, the goal is to create a push-pull mechanism that will reduce the probability of human-vector contact. The current study measured BGS recapture rates of Ae. aegypti test cohorts that were exposed to either SR or control (chemical-free) treatments within experimental huts. The objective was to define what, if any, negative impact SR may have on BGS trap efficacy (i.e., reduced BGS collection).MethodsAedes aegypti females were exposed to SR compounds within experimental huts in the form of either treated fabric (DDT and transfluthrin) or mosquito coil (metofluthrin). Test cohorts were released within individual screen house cubicles, each containing 4 BGS traps, following SR exposure according to treatment. Two separate test cohorts were evaluated: (i) immediate release (IR) exposed from 06:00–12:00 hours and released at 12:00 hours and (ii) delayed release (DR) exposed from12:00–18:00 hours and released at 05:30 hours the following day. BGS recapture was monitored at 09:30, 13:30 and 15:30 hours and the cumulative recapture by time point quantified.ResultsExposure of Ae. aegypti females to either DDT or metofluthrin did not significantly impact BGS capture as compared to cohorts of non-exposed females. This was true for both IR and DR exposure populations. IR cohorts exposed to transfluthrin resulted in significantly lower BGS recapture compared to matched controls but this effect was primarily due to high mosquito mortality during transfluthrin trials.ConclusionOur data indicate no more than minor and short-lived impacts (i.e., reduced attraction) on BGS trap catches following exposure to the pyrethroid compounds transfluthrin and metofluthrin and no change in recapture densities using DDT as compared to matched controls. These findings suggest a combined SR and BGS approach to vector control could function as a push-pull strategy to reduce Ae. aegypti adults in and around homes.

Little is known about tick-borne rickettsial pathogens in Belize, Central America. We tested ixodid ticks for the presence of Rickettsia species in three of the six northern and western Belizean districts. Ticks were collected from domestic animals and tick drags over vegetation in 23 different villages in November 2014, February 2015, and May 2015. A total of 2,506 collected ticks were identified to the following species: Dermacentor nitens Neumann (46.69%), Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille) (19.55%), Rhipicephalus microplus (Canestrini) (19.47%), Amblyomma cajennense complex (9.74%), Amblyomma maculatum Koch (3.47%), Amblyomma ovale Koch (0.68%), Ixodes nr affinis (0.16%), Amblyomma nr maculatum (0.12%), and Amblyomma nr oblongoguttatum (0.12%). Ticks were pooled according to species, life stage (larva, nymph, or adult), and location (n = 509) for DNA extraction and screened for genus Rickettsia by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). All 42 positive pools were found to be positive for spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsia in pools of A. cajennense complex (n = 33), A. maculatum (n = 4), A. nr maculatum (n = 1), A. ovale (n = 1), R. sanguineus (n = 1), and I. nr affinis (n = 2). Rickettsia amblyommatis was identified from A. cajennense complex and A. nr maculatum. Rickettsia parkeri was found in A. maculatum, and Rickettsia sp. endosymbiont was detected in I. nr affinis. The presence of infected ticks suggests a risk of tick-borne rickettsioses to humans and animals in Belize. This knowledge can contribute to an effective tick management and disease control program benefiting residents and travelers.