Most articles (k = 35) found evidence of either sex-specific associations (significant in one sex but not the other) or significant PNMSstress interactions for at least one child health outcome. Evidence for sex-dependent effects was strongest in the group of studies evaluating child neural/nervous system development and temperament as outcomes. There is sufficient evidence of sex-dependent associations to recommend that researchers always consider the potential role of child sex in PNMS programming studies and report descriptive statistics for study outcomes stratified by child biological sex.

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Maternal depression is associated with cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems in offspring, but the substantial heterogeneity of depression precludes a full understanding of these associations. Variation in course of depression, characterized by severity or chronicity, may be related differentially to children's development. The current meta-analytic review examined the relations of these characteristics of maternal depression to children's developmental outcomes. Twenty-nine studies were identified and reviewed; the majority (93%) of studies reported a negative association between some aspect of maternal depression and children's adjustment. Separate meta-analyses revealed significant effect sizes for severity (Fisher's z = −.243) and chronicity (adjusted Fisher's z = −.337) of maternal depression and children's cognitive or behavioral functioning. Findings are synthesized across features of maternal depression; methodological limitations within the empirical literature are discussed; and recommendations for future research are suggested.

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