Climate change adaptation and mitigation are usually the objects of separate projects, but in this review we argue that in agricultural contexts, there are often technical and fi nancial advantages in pursuing them simultaneously. This is because (1) adaptation planning is often necessary for mitigation (i.e., carbon sequestration) planning, especially for assessing future climate risks to mitigation investments, (2) certain land-use interventions can have both adaptation and mitigation bene fi ts, and (3) carbon fi nance can help in supporting adaptation which still tends to be underfunded. Agroforestry and ecosystem conservation are key approaches in the integration of climate change adaptation and mitigation objectives, often generating signi fi cant co-bene fi ts for local ecosystems and biodiversity. Synergies between climate change adaptation and mitigation actions are particularly likely in projects involving income diversi fi cation with tree and forest products, reduction of the susceptibility of land-use systems to extreme weather events, improvement of soil fertility, fi re management, wind breaks, and the conservation and restoration of forest and riparian corridors, wetlands, and mangroves. On the other hand, trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation are possible when fast-growing tree monocultures for mitigation con fl ict with local tree and forest uses, making livelihoods more vulnerable, when trees are planted in water-scarce areas con fl icting with local water uses, and in some cases when "climate-smart" agroforestry practices con fl ict with the need for agricultural intensi fi cation to produce increasing amounts of food for a growing population. Such con fl icts need to be avoided through careful, site-speci fi c, and participatory project development. We conclude that adaptation considerations should be included in mitigation project planning and integrated adaptation and mitigation activities should be prioritized in carbon markets and policy formation.

Tropical Oceania, including Melanesia, Polynesia, Micronesia and northern Australia, is one of the most biodiverse regions of the world. Climate change impacts have already occurred in the region and will become one of the greatest threats to biodiversity and people. Climate projections indicate that sea levels will rise in many places but not uniformly. Islands will warm and annual rainfall will increase and exhibit strong decadal variations. Increases in global atmospheric CO2 concentration are causing ocean acidification, compromising the ability of organisms such as corals to maintain their calcium carbonate skeletons. We discuss these climate threats and their implications for the biodiversity of several ecosystems (coral reefs, seagrass and mangroves) in the region. We highlight current adaptation approaches designed to address these threats, including efforts to integrate ecosystem and community-based approaches. Finally, we identify guiding principles for developing effective ecosystem-based adaptation strategies. Despite broad differences in governance and social systems within the region, particularly between Australia and the rest of the Pacific, threats and planning objectives are similar. Ensuring community awareness and participation are essential everywhere. The science underpinning ecosystem-based adaptation strategies is in its infancy but there is great opportunity for communicating approaches and lessons learnt between developing and developed nations in tropical Oceania.

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