No abstract

Interactions between humans and autonomous mobile robots (AMRs) are expected to grow in smart cities to improve logistics operations, such as depositing packages on AMRs for pickup on the street. However, the way that humans walk and pass objects to an AMR when approaching each other remains largely unknown. We conducted two psychophysical experiments to clarify the behavior and comfort of humans when carrying a package and placing it on an AMR for load carrying. Participants were asked to approach a programmed AMR and pass the package in two experiments: 1) changing the stop distance and AMR speed and 2) changing the stop distance and package weight. Motion trackers quantified the participants' walking speed and frequency of hesitation to walk. In addition, the subjective heaviness and comfort were recorded through a questionnaire during each trial. The results indicated that the participants' speed decreased and hesitation probability increased when the stop distance of the AMR decreased. Nevertheless, the participants felt more comfortable with the close approach, whereas the package weight did not affect their behavior. By contrast, they felt uncomfortable when AMR remained still. These findings suggest that humans regard the AMR approach as load-carrying assistance and not as invading their personal space. To achieve a comfortable interaction in load carrying from humans to AMRs, we suggest that the AMR can closely approach a person without eliciting personal space invasion.