Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in biological process and diseases. In contrast to other isozymes, HDAC8 is uniquely incapable of histone acetylation. In order to delineate its physiological function, we developed HDAC8-selective inhibitors using knowledge-based design combined with structural modeling techniques. Enzyme inhibitory analysis demonstrated that some of the resulting compounds (22 b, 22 d, 22 f, and 22 g) exhibited anti-HDAC8 activity superior to PCI34051, a known HDAC8-specific inhibitor, with IC(50) values in the range of 5-50 nM. Among them, compound 22 d showed antiproliferative effects toward several human lung cancer cell lines (A549, H1299, and CL1-5); it exhibited cytotoxicity against human lung CL1-5 cells similar to that of SAHA yet without significant cytotoxicity for normal IMR-90 cells. Expression profiling of HDAC isoforms in three cancer cell lines indicated that the HDAC8 level in CL1-5 is higher than that in H1299 and CL1-1 cells, a result consistent with the differential cytotoxicity of compound 22 d. These results suggest the effectiveness of our design concept, which may lead to a tool compound for studying the specific role of HDAC8 in cellular biological processes.

Methylation of the vertebrate genomes at cytosines is known to be accomplished by the combined actions of proteins encoded by different cytosine-5 DNA methyltransferases or DNA MTases. These proteins include the de novo DNA MTases Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b, the maintenance DNA MTase Dnmt1, and their isomers (1-4). There are also other DNA MTase-like proteins expressed in the eukaryotic cells, but they are without well documented DNA methylation activities. These include the Dnmt3L (5) and Dnmt2 proteins.The Dnmt2 proteins are relatively shorter than Dnmt3a, Dnmt3b, or Dnmt1, and structurally they are similar to the bacteria dcm enzyme (6). The eukaryotic Dnmt2 protein family consists of the yeast pmt1 (7), the mammalian Dnmt2 including mouse mDnmt2 and human hDnmt2 (8, 9), and Drosophila dDnmt2 (10, 11). Of the Dnmt2 proteins known, pmt1 has been demonstrated to be enzymatically inactive due to amino acid change at a potential catalytic site (12). Sequence analysis showed that mDnmt2, hDnmt2, and dDnmt2 all contain the conserved DNA MTase motifs (8 -11). DNA methylation analysis of ES cells with homozygous knock-out of the mouse mD-NMT2 genes suggested that mDnmt2 protein might also be an inactive DNA MTase (8). Finally, there has been no report on the DNA methylation activity of the Drosophila dDnmt2 until very recently. By overexpression of dDnmt2 in Drosophila S2 cells and subsequent analysis of the S2 cell genome with the sodium bisulfite sequencing approach, it was shown that specific regions were anomalously methylated in comparison to S2 cells without overexpression of the dDnmt2 protein (13).To avoid potential side effects resulting from use of the long term-selected S2 cell culture in the above study, we have now examined the genome of transgenic Drosophila flies stably overexpressing dDnmt2. Interestingly, specific genomic regions of the transgenic flies were also found to be anomalously hypermethylated. To complement the fly analysis, we further carried out DNA transfection experiments to transiently express fly dDnmt2 or mouse mDnmt2 in S2 cells. As shown below, dDnmt2 as well as mDnmt2 are capable of methylating cytosines of a cotransfected plasmid. The conservation of the enzymatically active Dnmt2 proteins from mammals to the flies suggests that this DNA MTase subfamily likely carries out important and to-be-identified function(s). EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESPlasmid Constructs-For transgenic fly work, the dDNMT2 cDNA was released from pGEM(1)-dDNMT2 with PacI-NcoI and blunt ended. This dDNMT2 fragment, which contains bp 6964 -7024 linked to 7074 -8051 of the dDNMT2 gene, was cloned at the EcoRI site of the polylinker of pUAST (14), and the resulting plasmid, pUAST-dDNMT2, was used for germ line transformation. For transient transfection, pAC5.1/V5-HisA vector (Invitrogen) containing Drosophila actin promoter was digested with KpnI, blunt ended, and redigested with EcoRI. pSG424 plasmid (15) was cut with BglII, blunt ended, and the GAL4 DNA binding domain-containing fragment was released by EcoRI digestion. Th...

Thus far, only one major form of vertebrate DNA (cytosine-5) methyltransferase (CpG MTase, EC 2.1.1.37) has been identified, cloned, and extensively studied. This enzyme, dnmt1, has been hypothesized to be responsible for most of the maintenance as well as the de novo methylation activities occurring in the somatic cells of vertebrates. We now report the discovery of another abundant species of CpG MTase in various types of human cell lines and somatic tissues. Interestingly, the mRNA encoding this CpG MTase results from alternative splicing of the primary transcript from the Dnmt1 gene, which incorporates in-frame an additional 48 nt between exons 4 and 5. Furthermore, this 48-nt exon sequence is derived from the first, or the most upstream, copy of a set of seven different Alu repeats located in intron 4. The ratios of expression of this mRNA to the expression of the previously known, shorter Dnmt1 mRNA species, as estimated by semiquantitative reverse transcription-PCR analysis, range from two-thirds to three-sevenths. This alternative splicing scheme of the Dnmt1 transcript seems to be conserved in the higher primates. We suggest that the originally described and the recently discovered forms of CpG MTase be named dnmt1-a and dnmt1-b, respectively. The evolutionary and biological implications of this finding are discussed in relation to the cellular functions of the CpG residues and the CpG MTases.In vertebrates, including mammals, chromosomal DNAs are modified by C-methylation at a limited number of CpG dinucleotides, resulting in methylation at the 5Ј position of the C residues. Many studies have indicated that this methylation process and its product, m

In this study, we characterize a novel white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) structural protein, VP51A (WSSV-TW open reading frame 294), identified from a previous mass spectrometry study. Temporal-transcription analysis showed that vp51A is expressed in the late stage of WSSV infection. Gene structure analysis showed that the transcription initiation site of vp51A was 135 bp upstream of the translation start codon. The poly(A) addition signal overlapped with the translation stop codon, TAA, and the poly(A) tail was 23 bp downstream of the TAA. Western blot analysis of viral protein fractions and immunoelectron microscopy both suggested that VP51A is a viral envelope protein. Western blotting of the total proteins extracted from WSSV virions detected a band that was close to the predicted 51-kDa mass, but the strongest signal was around 72 kDa. We concluded that this 72-kDa band was in fact the full-length VP51A protein. Membrane topology assays demonstrated that the VP51A 72-kDa protein is a type II transmembrane protein with a highly hydrophobic transmembrane domain on its N terminus and a C terminus that is exposed on the surface of the virion. Coimmunoprecipitation, colocalization, and yeast two-hybrid assays revealed that VP51A associated directly with VP26 and indirectly with VP28, with VP26 acting as a linker protein in the formation of a VP51A-VP26-VP28 complex.Viral structural proteins, especially the envelope proteins, are important, not only because they are involved in virion morphogenesis, but also because they are the first molecules to interact with the host. The structural proteins often play vital roles in cell targeting, virus entry, assembly, and budding (1, 2, 21, 22, 24), as well as triggering host antiviral defenses (26). In the case of white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) (genus Whispovirus, family Nimaviridae) (37), a double-stranded DNA virus that has caused severe mortality and huge economic losses to the shrimp farming industry globally for more than a decade (5, 19), proteomic methods have helped to identify a total of 58 structural proteins, over 30 of which are currently recognized as envelope proteins (13,31,44,47). Some of the WSSV envelope proteins involved in shrimp infection have been identified (12,14,34,36,41,43), and these envelope and other WSSV structural proteins have been used in various studies, including RNA interference-based gene knockdown to silence viral structural-protein gene expression (8, 27, 45), DNA and protein vaccination to elevate host immunity (25,29,36,39), and antibody neutralization techniques that neutralize the virus by preventing envelope proteins from interacting with host cell receptors (12,34,41,43).In the present paper, we characterize and investigate the functionality of a WSSV structural protein that was first reported by Tsai et al. (32). This protein, designated VP51A, corresponds to open reading frame 294 of the WSSV-TW isolate, and its gene encodes a polypeptide of 486 amino acids (aa) with a theoretical mass of 51 kDa. A method was recently establ...

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