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Contraction of striated muscles is driven by cyclic interactions of myosin head projecting from the thick filament with actin filament and is regulated by Ca 2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum. Muscle thin filament consists of actin, tropomyosin and troponin, and Ca 2+ binding to troponin triggers conformational changes of troponin and tropomyosin to allow actin-myosin interactions. However, the structural changes involved in this regulatory mechanism remain unknown. Here we report the structures of human cardiac muscle thin filament in the absence and presence of Ca 2+ by electron cryomicroscopy. Molecular models in the two states built based on available crystal structures reveal the structures of a C-terminal region of troponin I and an N-terminal region of troponin T in complex with the head-to-tail junction of tropomyosin together with the troponin core on actin filament. Structural changes of the thin filament upon Ca 2+ binding now reveal the mechanism of Ca 2+ regulation of muscle contraction.

F-actin is a helical assembly of actin, which is a component of muscle fibres essential for contraction and has a crucial role in numerous cellular processes, such as the formation of lamellipodia and filopodia, as the most abundant component and regulator of cytoskeletons by dynamic assembly and disassembly (from G-actin to F-actin and vice versa). Actin is a ubiquitous protein and is involved in important biological functions, but the definitive high-resolution structure of F-actin remains unknown. Although a recent atomic model well reproduced X-ray fibre diffraction intensity data from a highly oriented liquid-crystalline sol specimen, its refinement without experimental phase information has certain limitations. Direct visualization of the structure by electron cryomicroscopy, however, has been difficult because it is relatively thin and flexible. Here we report the F-actin structure at 6.6 Å resolution, made obtainable by recent advances in electron cryomicroscopy. The density map clearly resolves all the secondary structures of G-actin, such as α-helices, β-structures and loops, and makes unambiguous modelling and refinement possible. Complex domain motions that open the nucleotide-binding pocket on F-actin formation, specific D-loop and terminal conformations, and relatively tight axial but markedly loose interprotofilament interactions hydrophilic in nature are revealed in the F-actin model, and all seem to be important for dynamic functions of actin.

Cloning mammals by means of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is highly inefficient because of erroneous reprogramming of the donor genome. Reprogramming errors appear to arise randomly, but the nature of nonrandom, SCNT-specific errors remains elusive. We found that Xist, a noncoding RNA that inactivates one of the two X chromosomes in females, was ectopically expressed from the active X (Xa) chromosome in cloned mouse embryos of both sexes. Deletion of Xist on Xa showed normal global gene expression and resulted in about an eight- to ninefold increase in cloning efficiency. We also identified an Xist-independent mechanism that specifically down-regulated a subset of X-linked genes through somatic-type repressive histone blocks. Thus, we have identified nonrandom reprogramming errors in mouse cloning that can be altered to improve the efficiency of SCNT methods.

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