By the beginning of the 21st century, cardiovascular disease (CVD) had become the leading cause of premature mortality and morbidity worldwide, with 80% originating from less developed lower-income countries in line with societal and economic developments. Extensive research on causes and risk factors have been carried out since the mid-20th century and have established individual factors such as smoking, hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia as CVD risk factors, followed by others. Two recent major case-control studies have summarized the role of common major CVD risk factors in determining the R ESUM E Au d ebut du XXI e siècle, les maladies cardiovasculaires (MCV) sont devenues la principale cause de mortalit e pr ematur ee et de morbidit e dans le monde, dont 80 % des cas ayant et e recens es dans des pays moins d evelopp es, à revenu relativement faible, conform ement à l' evolution du d eveloppement soci etal et economique. De vastes recherches men ees depuis le milieu du XX e siècle sur les causes et les facteurs de risque ont permis de d eterminer que les facteurs individuels comme le tabagisme, l'hypertension, le diabète et la dyslipid emie sont des facteurs de risque de MCV, suivis par d'autres. Dans deux Health TransitionsChanges in health patterns have occurred in the background of major societal changes in the global population. There are several major transitions, including urban, nutrition, and activity transitions, that might greatly affect cardiovascular health (Fig. 1) 5 : Urban transitionIn 1970, 37% of the world's population lived in urban areas; by 2025, this is projected to increase to 61% in developed countries but in lower proportions in developing countries. The effects of urbanization are associated with economic growth and can vary according to the country's economic development leading to heterogeneous effects on health. In developed countries, urbanization is accompanied by economic growth, planned development of urban infrastructures, and increased spending on social services, education, and health care. In poorer countries, rapid

Recent advances in metabolomics allow for more objective assessment of contemporary food exposures, which have been proposed as an alternative or complement to self-reporting of food intake. However, the quality of evidence supporting the utility of dietary biomarkers as valid measures of habitual intake of foods or complex dietary patterns in diverse populations has not been systematically evaluated. We reviewed nutritional metabolomics studies reporting metabolites associated with specific foods or food groups; evaluated the interstudy repeatability of dietary biomarker candidates; and reported study design, metabolomic approach, analytical technique(s), and type of biofluid analyzed. A comprehensive literature search of 5 databases (PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, BIOSIS, and CINAHL) was conducted from inception through December 2020. This review included 244 studies, 169 (69%) of which were interventional studies (9 of these were replicated in free-living participants) and 151 (62%) of which measured the metabolomic profile of serum and/or plasma. Food-based metabolites identified in ≥1 study and/or biofluid were associated with 11 food-specific categories or dietary patterns: 1) fruits; 2) vegetables; 3) high-fiber foods (grain-rich); 4) meats; 5) seafood; 6) pulses, legumes, and nuts; 7) alcohol; 8) caffeinated beverages, teas, and cocoas; 9) dairy and soya; 10) sweet and sugary foods; and 11) complex dietary patterns and other foods. We conclude that 69 metabolites represent good candidate biomarkers of food intake. Quantitative measurement of these metabolites will advance our understanding of the relation between diet and chronic disease risk and support evidence-based dietary guidelines for global health.