No abstract

Lung cancer has the highest incidence and mortality rate worldwide. Immunotherapy is a universal treatment for lung cancer, but its overall treatment remains a challenge. Tumor immunoediting is a process in which the immune system restricts or promotes tumor development through elimination, equilibrium, and escape to change tumor immunogenicity and obtain an immunosuppressive mechanism to promote disease progression. An increasing number of immunotherapy drugs, including monoclonal antibody-targeting drugs and chimeric antigen (Ag) receptor-modified T cells (CAR-T cells), have been used in clinical therapy. Additionally, cancer vaccine development and new clustered regularly spaced short palindromes (CRISPR)based combination therapies against cancer open up new avenues for immunotherapy. However, these immunotherapies cause autoimmune induction and non-specific inflammation, with many limitations. The development and study of nanoparticle systems have shown the possibility of localization, pharmacokinetic programming, and immunomodulator co-delivery. Rapid advances in nanotechnology over the past decade have provided a strategic impetus for cancer immunotherapy improvements. Nanotechnology advancements in various aspects, such as virus-like size, high surface-volume ratio, and surface modifications to precisely target specific cell types, can be investigated through cancer vaccine and immunomodulator delivery system development. This review presents the current immunotherapy approaches for lung cancer and emphasizes the current process and prospects of the fusion of cancer immunotherapy, nanotechnology, bioengineering, and drug delivery.

Nanodiamonds (NDs) are emerging as a promising platform for theranostic particles since they offer a single platform that possesses multiple important properties. These include a simple mechanism of synthesis, small size, chemical inertness, a variety of available surface functional groups, good biocompatibility, stable fluorescence, and a long fluorescence lifetime. The use of NDs to deliver anticancer drugs has been an important ND application since NDs can increase chemosensitivity, sustain drug release, and minimize drug side effects. These unique properties have stimulated the application of NDs to cancer imaging and therapy. In this review, we offer a brief introduction of ND structure and their functional properties. This is followed by a summary of recent uses of NDs for imaging purposes, including fluorescent imaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other imaging technologies. Special concern is given to studies focusing on NDs use for anticancer drug delivery, anticancer gene delivery, photothermal and photodynamic therapies, and multifunctional combination therapy. We then discuss ND biocompatibility and toxicity in various cells and animal models. Finally, we also discuss the main problems to be solved by future research before NDs can be put to clinical use. The purpose of this review is to provide a side-by-side comparison of studies reporting ND-mediated cancer imaging therapy so that readers can assess the potential clinical applications of ND and have the background necessary to understand the clinical test results associated with ND-related therapy in animals and humans.