2 studies tested the hypothesis that infant smile production depends on the availability of a social recipient for the facial signal, as well as on appropriate internal events. We examined the effects of attentive and inattentive, familiar and unfamiliar social objects on smile production in 1 1/2-year-old infants outside of social interactions. Like adults, these infants directed a majority of the smiles produced during nonsocial activity to an attentive social object. Overall smiling frequency was much lower when the only potential recipient (the mother) was inattentive, but the effect did not appear to be mediated by negative emotion. Only smiles directed to mother were reduced: nonsocial smiling (at the toys) was not sensitive to mother's inattention, and when an attentive, friendly stranger was present, she was accepted as a substitute target for social smiles. We conclude that an open channel of social communication promotes the outward expression of internal affect in infants.

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2 studies tested the hypothesis that infant smile production depends on the availability of a social recipient for the facial signal, as well as on appropriate internal events. We examined the effects of attentive and inattentive, familiar and unfamiliar social objects on smile production in 1 1/2-year-old infants outside of social interactions. Like adults, these infants directed a majority of the smiles produced during nonsocial activity to an attentive social object. Overall smiling frequency was much lower when the only potential recipient (the mother) was inattentive, but the effect did not appear to be mediated by negative emotion. Only smiles directed to mother were reduced: nonsocial smiling (at the toys) was not sensitive to mother's inattention, and when an attentive, friendly stranger was present, she was accepted as a substitute target for social smiles. We conclude that an open channel of social communication promotes the outward expression of internal affect in infants.