M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors modulate cardiac rhythm via regulation of the inward potassium current. To increase our understanding of M2 receptor physiology we used Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy to visualize individual receptors at the plasma membrane of transformed CHOM2 cells, a cardiac cell line (HL-1), primary cardiomyocytes and tissue slices from pre- and post-natal mice. Receptor expression levels between individual cells in dissociated cardiomyocytes and heart slices were highly variable and only 10% of murine cardiomyocytes expressed muscarinic receptors. M2 receptors were evenly distributed across individual cells and their density in freshly isolated embryonic cardiomyocytes was ~ 1 μm− 2, increasing at birth (to ~ 3 μm− 2) and decreasing back to ~ 1 μm− 2 after birth. M2 receptors were primarily monomeric but formed reversible dimers. They diffused freely at the plasma membrane, moving approximately 4-times faster in heart slices than in cultured cardiomyocytes. Knowledge of receptor density and mobility has allowed receptor collision rate to be modeled by Monte Carlo simulations. Our estimated encounter rate of 5–10 collisions per second, may explain the latency between acetylcholine application and GIRK channel opening.

Th1 lymphocytes are considered the main mediators of protection against tuberculosis (TB); however, their phenotypic characteristics and relationship with Th17 and Th1Th17 populations during TB are poorly understood. We have analyzed Th1, Th17, and Th1Th17 lymphocytes in the blood and pulmonary lesions of TB patients. The populations were identified based on the production of IFN-γ and/or IL-17 and the coexpression of CXCR3 (X3) and CCR6 (R6). In the blood, IL-17 and IFN-γIL-17 lymphocytes were barely detectable (median, <0.01% of CD4 lymphocytes), whereas IFN-γ lymphocytes predominated (median, 0.45%). Most IFN-γ lymphocytes (52%) were X3R6, suggesting their "nonclassical" (ex-Th17) nature. In the lungs, IL-17 and IFN-γIL-17 lymphocytes were more frequent (0.3%, < 0.005), yet IFN-γ cells predominated (11%). Phenotypically, lung CD4 cells were X3R6 The degree of differentiation of blood effector CD4 lymphocytes (evaluated based on CD62L/CD27/CD28 coexpression) increased as follows: X3R6 < X3R6 < X3R6, with X3R6 cells being largely terminally differentiated CD62LCD27CD28 cells. Lung CD4 lymphocytes were highly differentiated, recalling blood X3R6 populations. Following in vitro stimulation with anti-CD3/anti-CD28 Abs, X3R6CD4 lymphocytes converted into X3R6 and X3R6 cells. The results demonstrate that, during active TB, Th1 lymphocytes predominate in blood and lungs, document differences in X3/R6 expression by blood and lung CD4 cells, and link the pattern of X3/R6 expression with the degree of cell differentiation. These findings add to the understanding of immune mechanisms operating during TB and are relevant for the development of better strategies to control it.

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Macrophages (Mφ) derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iMphs) represent a novel and promising model for studying human Mφ function and differentiation and developing new therapeutic strategies based on or oriented at Mφs. iMphs have several advantages over the traditionally used human Mφ models, such as immortalized cell lines and monocyte-derived Mφs. The advantages include the possibility of obtaining genetically identical and editable cells in a potentially scalable way. Various applications of iMphs are being developed, and their number is rapidly growing. However, the protocols of iMph differentiation that are currently used vary substantially, which may lead to differences in iMph differentiation trajectories and properties. Standardization of the protocols and identification of minimum required conditions that would allow obtaining iMphs in a large-scale, inexpensive, and clinically suitable mode are needed for future iMph applications. As a first step in this direction, the current review discusses the fundamental basis for the generation of human iMphs, performs a detailed analysis of the generalities and the differences between iMph differentiation protocols currently employed, and discusses the prospects of iMph applications.

Over the last decade, there have been remarkable developments in live-cell imaging. We can now readily observe individual protein molecules within living cells and this should contribute to a systems level understanding of biological pathways. Direct observation of single fluorophores enables several types of molecular information to be gathered. Temporal and spatial trajectories enable diffusion constants and binding kinetics to be deduced, while analyses of fluorescence lifetime, intensity, polarization or spectra give chemical and conformational information about molecules in their cellular context. By recording the spatial trajectories of pairs of interacting molecules, formation of larger molecular complexes can be studied. In the future, multicolour and multiparameter imaging of single molecules in live cells will be a powerful analytical tool for systems biology. Here, we discuss measurements of single-molecule mobility and residency at the plasma membrane of live cells. Analysis of diffusional paths at the plasma membrane gives information about its physical properties and measurement of temporal trajectories enables rates of binding and dissociation to be derived. Meanwhile, close scrutiny of individual fluorophore trajectories enables ideas about molecular dimerization and oligomerization related to function to be tested directly.