We developed empirical methods to identify variations in elements of gun culture across states. Using these methods, we then analyzed the prominence of these subcultures between states and over time from 1998 through 2016. Using state-level data, we conducted a principal component analysis of 11 variables associated with gun-related behaviors and retained only the significant components. We then analyzed the presence of these components over time and across states. Based on the principal component analysis, we identified three cultural variations. Component 1 reflected recreational elements of gun culture. Component 2 represented a self-defense element of gun culture. Component 3 was indicative of a symbolic cultural element centered around the protection of the Second Amendment and insurrectionism. Over time, the recreational cultural element declined in prominence while the self-defense one rose and the Second Amendment advocacy one remained stable. This paper advances the literature on gun culture by demonstrating that: (1) gun culture is not monolithic; (2) there are multiple elements of gun culture that vary substantially between states; (3) over time, the recreational gun subculture has been falling in prominence whereas the self-defense subculture has been rising; and (4) there is another subculture, distinct from the self-defense one, which consists in mobilization around the Second Amendment and was strongest in places where state firearm laws are most extensive.

The response to firearm injuries and gun violence in the United States is constrained by a lack of scientific knowledge. According to a 2013 report from the Institute of Medicine, "the scarcity of research on firearm-related violence limits policymakers' ability to propose evidence-based policies that reduce injuries and deaths and maximize safety." 1 In the 1980s, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention initiated research on firearm injuries, but, in 1996, Congress forbid the agency from spending funds to "advocate or promote gun control." 2 Its spending on firearm injury research fell 96% by 2012, 3 and the agency retreated from the subject.To assess trends in scientific research on the association between guns, crimes, and violence, this study examined changes over time in the number of published articles and the number of researchers writing them. As publications are a major means for the dissemination of scientific knowledge, their volume can serve as a measure of scientific attention. 4 Methods | This study examined trends in gun violence research published between 1960 and 2014 and indexed in the SciVerse SCOPUS database (Elsevier), a large abstract and citation database. 5

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