Background Simulation training has become a key part of the surgical curriculum over recent years. Current trainees face significantly reduced operating time as a result of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, alongside increased costs to surgical training, thus creating a need for low-cost simulation models. Methods A systematic review of the literature was performed using multiple databases. Each model included was assessed for the ease and expense of its construction, as well as its validity and educational value. Results A total of 18 low-cost simulation models were identified, relating to otology, head and neck surgery, laryngeal surgery, rhinology, and tonsil surgery. In only four of these models (22.2 per cent) was an attempt made to demonstrate the educational impact of the model. Validation was rarely formally assessed. Conclusion More efforts are required to standardise validation methods and demonstrate the educational value of the available low-cost simulation models in otorhinolaryngology.

Purpose Barriers to education in open and laparoscopic hernia repair technique include a steep learning curve and reduced theatre time for junior surgical trainees. This is particularly evident during the current COVID-19 pandemic. Simulation models may provide further opportunities for training in hernia repair outside of the traditional surgical apprenticeship model. Methods A systematic review was carried out following PRISMA guidelines to identify and evaluate simulation models in hernia repair. Of the 866 records screened, 27 were included in the analysis. These were assessed for face, content and construct validity, as well as their attempt to measure educational impact. Results Simulation models were identified comprising of animal tissues, synthetic materials and virtual reality (VR) technology. Models were designed for instruction in repair of inguinal, umbilical, incisional and diaphragmatic hernias. Twenty-one laparoscopic hernia repair models were described. Many models demonstrated validity across several domains, and three showed transferability of skills from simulation to the operating room. Of the six open hernia repair simulation models, none were found to have demonstrated an educational impact in addition to assessing validity. Conclusion Few models individually were able to demonstrate validity and educational impact. Several novel assessment tools have been developed for assessment of progress when performing simulated and real laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair. More study is required, particularly for open hernia repair, including randomized controlled trials with large sample sizes to assess the transferability of skills.

Introduction Simulation models have been found to be effective and valid for training in Urology. Due to increasing costs of surgical training, there is a need for low-cost simulation models to enable Urology trainees to improve their skills Material and methods A literature review was performed using the PubMed and Embase databases until March 2020. A total of 157 abstracts were identified using the search criteria, of which 20 articles were identified describing simulation models for Urology training. Articles reviewed described simulation models created from materials costing less than $150. Data was extracted from the relevant articles in order to critically assess each paper for validity, ease of construct and educational impact. Results Models were found pertaining to suprapubic catheterization (6), cystoscopy (3), percutaneous nephrolithotomy (5), scrotal examination (1), circumcision (1), ureteroscopy (1), transurethral resection of the prostate and bladder (2), and open prostatectomy (1). 18/20 (90%) assessed for either face, content, or construct validity. None of the papers evaluated assessed for transferability of skills to performance in real patients. Conclusions A plethora of low-cost simulation models for urological procedures are described in the literature, many of which can be easily constructed from cheap and accessible materials. However there is a need for further efforts to validate or assess for transferability of skills to clinical practice.

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