The species has diversified into host-specific lineages, implying a long-term association with different vertebrates. Strains from rodent lineages show specific adaptations to mice, but the processes underlying the evolution of in other hosts remain unknown. We administered three standardized inocula composed of strains from different host-confined lineages to mice, pigs, chickens, and humans. The ecological performance of each strain in the gastrointestinal tract of each host was determined by typing random colonies recovered from fecal samples collected over five consecutive days postadministration. Results revealed that rodent strains were predominant in mice, confirming previous findings of host adaptation. In chickens, poultry strains of the lineage VI (poultry VI) and human isolates from the same lineage (human VI) were recovered at the highest and second highest rates, respectively. Interestingly, human VI strains were virtually undetected in human feces. These findings, together with ancestral state reconstructions, indicate poultry VI and human VI strains share an evolutionary history with chickens. Genomic analysis revealed that poultry VI strains possess a large and variable accessory genome, whereas human VI strains display low genetic diversity and possess genes encoding antibiotic resistance and capsular polysaccharide synthesis, which might have allowed temporal colonization of humans. Experiments in pigs and humans did not provide evidence of host adaptation of to these hosts. Overall, our findings demonstrate host adaptation of to rodents and chickens, supporting a joint evolution of this bacterial species with several vertebrate hosts, although questions remain about its natural history in humans and pigs. Gut microbes are often hypothesized to have coevolved with their vertebrate hosts. However, the evidence is sparse and the evolutionary mechanisms have not been identified. We developed and applied an experimental approach to determine host adaptation of to different hosts. Our findings confirmed adaptation to rodents and provided evidence of adaptation to poultry, suggesting that evolved via natural selection in different hosts. By complementing phylogenetic analyses with experimental evidence, this study provides novel information about the mechanisms driving host-microbe coevolution with vertebrates and serve as a basis to inform the application of as a probiotic for different host species.

ABSTRACT:The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) constitutes one of the largest immunological organs of the body. The GIT must permit absorption of nutrients while also maintaining the ability to respond appropriately to a diverse milieu of dietary and microbial antigenic components. Because of the diverse population of antigenic components within the GIT, a sophisticated mucosal immune system has evolved that relies on collaboration between the innate and adaptive arms of immunity. The collaborative, mucosal immune effort offers protection from harmful pathogens while also being tolerant of dietary antigens and normal microbial flora. Knowledge with respect to porcine mucosal immunity is important as we strive to understand the interrelationships among GIT physiology, immunology, and the resident microbiota. The aim of this review is to provide a descriptive overview of GIT immunity and components of the mucosal immune system and to highlight differences that exist between the porcine species and other mammals.

Litter performance and progeny health status may be decreased in progeny derived from primiparous sows but improve with increasing parity. The objective was to evaluate litter performance, the production and passive transfer of Ig, and fecal microbial populations in progeny derived from first parity (P1) compared with fourth parity (P4) dams. Litter performance was recorded for P1 (n = 19) and P4 (n = 24) dams including number of pigs/litter (total born, born live, stillbirths, mummified fetuses, prewean mortality, and pigs weaned) and average litter and piglet BW at birth (d 0), d 7, d 14, and at weaning (average d 19). Blood samples were collected from all dams on d 90 and 114 of gestation and d 0 of lactation. Colostrum and milk samples were collected from each dam on d 0, 7, and 14 of lactation for quantification of IgG and IgA. Blood and fecal samples were collected from each litter (n = 6 pigs/litter) on d 1, 7, and 14 after parturition. Circulating IgG and IgA concentrations were quantified in all blood samples. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) was used to characterize similarity and diversity of fecal microbes among progeny. Progeny of P1 dams had decreased average litter BW at d 7 (25.7 vs. 30.0 kg; P < 0.03) and decreased average piglet BW throughout the experiment (d 0, 7, 14, and 19; P < 0.001) compared with P4 progeny. No parity × day interactions were observed with respect to immunoglobulin or microbial analyses. Concentrations of IgA tended to be greater (P = 0.09) in samples of colostrum and milk obtained from P4 compared with P1 dams. Serum IgG concentrations were greater (P < 0.02) in P4 progeny compared with P1 progeny. Results of DGGE revealed that P1 progeny had increased (P < 0.001) microbial similarity on d 7 and decreased (P < 0.03) microbial similarity on d 14 compared with P4 progeny. Progeny of P1 dams tended (P = 0.07) to have a greater Shannon's diversity index compared with P4 progeny on d 1, and P1 progeny had a greater (P < 0.03) Shannon's diversity index compared with P4 progeny on d 7. Litter performance, passive transfer of immunity, and progeny microbial ecology were affected by dam parity.

One strategy for enhancing the establishment of probiotic bacteria in the human intestinal tract is via the parallel administration of a prebiotic, which is referred to as a synbiotic. Here we present a novel method that allows a rational selection of putative probiotic strains to be used in synbiotic applications: in vivo selection (IVS). This method consists of isolating candidate probiotic strains from fecal samples following enrichment with the respective prebiotic. To test the potential of IVS, we isolated bifidobacteria from human subjects who consumed increasing doses of galactooligosaccharides (GOS) for 9 weeks. A retrospective analysis of the fecal microbiota of one subject revealed an 8-fold enrichment in Bifidobacterium adolescentis strain IVS-1 during GOS administration. The functionality of GOS to support the establishment of IVS-1 in the gastrointestinal tract was then evaluated in rats administered the bacterial strain alone, the prebiotic alone, or the synbiotic combination. Strain-specific quantitative real-time PCR showed that the addition of GOS increased B. adolescentis IVS-1 abundance in the distal intestine by nearly 2 logs compared to rats receiving only the probiotic. Illumina 16S rRNA sequencing not only confirmed the increased establishment of IVS-1 in the intestine but also revealed that the strain was able to outcompete the resident Bifidobacterium population when provided with GOS. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that IVS can be used to successfully formulate a synergistic synbiotic that can substantially enhance the establishment and competitiveness of a putative probiotic strain in the gastrointestinal tract.T he mechanistic role of the gastrointestinal (GI) microbiota and its metabolites in maintaining human health has been well demonstrated (1-3). Gut microbes provide several important benefits for their host, including provision of nutrients, development and maturation of the immune system, and protection against pathogens via colonization resistance (4). However, the gut microbiota may also contribute to obesity, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, and other chronic disease states (5-7). Such diseases are often associated with compositional alterations in the fecal microbiota, a condition referred to as "dysbiosis" (8). Given that the presence of specific types of bacteria and their relative abundance within the gut are considered to affect host health, there is much interest in devising strategies that modulate gut microbiota composition and potentially redress disease-related dysbiotic patterns (9).Dietary approaches currently available to modulate the gut microbiota include prebiotics (10-12), fermentable fibers (13, 14), probiotics (or live biotherapeutics) (15), and synbiotics, which are a combination of a probiotic and a prebiotic (11, 16). According to Kolida and Gibson (16), synbiotics can be either complementary or synergistic. Complementary synbiotics consist of a probiotic and a prebiotic selected to independently confer benefits to the host. In contrast, sy...

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