Gene targeting in mice was used to investigate the unknown function of

Objectives Apolipoprotein E (apoE) exerts potent anti-inflammatory effects. We here investigated the effect of apoE on the functional phenotype of macrophages. Methods and Results Human apoE receptors VLDL-R or apoER2 were stably expressed in RAW264.7 mouse macrophages. In these cells apoE downregulated markers of the pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype (iNOS, IL-12, MIP-1α), but upregulated markers of the anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype (arginase-I, SOCS3, IL-1RA). In addition, M1 macrophage responses (migration, generation of reactive oxygen species, antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity, phagocytosis) as well as poly(I:C)- and/or IFN-γ-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, COX-2 expression, and activation of NF-κB, IκB and STAT1 were suppressed in VLDL-R- or apoER2-expressing cells. Conversely, the suppression of M2 phenotype and the enhanced response to poly(I:C) were observed in apoE-producing bone marrow macrophages derived from VLDL-R-deficient mice, but not wild type or LDL receptor-deficient mice. The modulatory effects of apoE on macrophage polarization were inhibited in apoE receptor-expressing RAW264.7 cells exposed to SB220025, a p38MAP kinase inhibitor, and PP1, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Accordingly, apoE induced tyrosine kinase-dependent activation of p38MAP kinase in VLDL-R- or apoER2-expressing macrophages. Under in vivo conditions, apoE−/− mice transplanted with apoE-producing wild-type bone marrow showed increased plasma IL-1RA levels and peritoneal macrophages of transplanted animals were shifted to the M2 phenotype (increased IL-1RA production and CD206 expression). Conclusion ApoE signaling via VLDL-R or apoER2 promotes macrophage conversion from the pro-inflammatory M1 to the anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype. This effect may represent a novel anti-inflammatory activity of apoE.

Lipid bilayer fusion is mediated by SNAREs (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors) located on the vesicle membrane (v-SNAREs) and the target membrane (t-SNAREs). The assembled v-SNARE/t-SNARE complex consists of a bundle of four helices, of which one is supplied by the v-SNARE and the other three by the t-SNARE. For t-SNAREs on the plasma membrane, the protein syntaxin supplies one helix and a SNAP-25 protein contributes the other two. Although there are numerous homologues of syntaxin on intracellular membranes, there are only two SNAP-25-related proteins in yeast, Sec9 and Spo20, both of which are localized to the plasma membrane and function in secretion and sporulation, respectively. What replaces SNAP-25 in t-SNAREs of intracellular membranes? Here we show that an intracellular t-SNARE is built from a 'heavy chain' homologous to syntaxin and two separate non-syntaxin 'light chains'. SNAP-25 may thus be the exception rather than the rule, having been derived from genes that encoded separate light chains that fused during evolution to produce a single gene encoding one protein with two helices.