Problem-solving theory and research were selectively reviewed for possible applications in behavior modification. Problem solving was defined as a behavioral process which (a) makes available a variety of response alternatives for dealing with a problematic situation and (b) increases the probability of selecting the most effective response from among these alternatives. Five stages of problem solving were identified: (a) general orientation or "set," (b) problem definition and formulation, (c) generation of alternatives, (d) decision making, and (e) verification. Training in problem solving was conceptualized as a form of self-control training, that is, the individual "learns how to solve problems" and thus discovers for himself the most effective way of responding. General guidelines are presented for clinical application with cases characterized by a deficit in effective behavior and its emotional consequences.

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In this chapter we describe the social problem-solving model that has generated most of the research and training programs presented in the remaining chapters of this volume. We also describe the major assessment methods and instruments that have been used to measure social problemsolving ability and performance in research as well as clinical practice.The term social problem solving refers to the process of problem solving as it occurs in the natural environment or "real world" (D'Zurilla & Nezu, 1982). The adjective social is not meant to limit the study of problem solving to any particular type of problem. It is used in this context only to highlight the fact that we are interested in problem solving that influences one's adaptive functioning in the real-life social environment. Hence, the study of social problem solving deals with all types of problems that might affect a person's functioning, including impersonal problems (e.g., insufficient finances, stolen property), personal or intrapersonal problems (emotional, behavioral, cognitive, or health problems), interpersonal problems (e.g., marital conflicts, family disputes), as well as broader community and societal problems (e.g., crime, racial discrimination). The model of social problem solving presented in this chapter was originally introduced by D' Zurilla and Goldfried (1971) II

The Social Problem-Solving Inventory (SPSI) is a 70-item, multidimensional, self-report measure of social problem-solving ability that is based on the prescriptive model developed previously by D'Zurilla and his associates. The SPSI consists of 2 major scales and 7 subscales. The 2 major scales are the Problem Orientation Scale (POS) and the Problem-Solving Skills Scale (PSSS). Subsumed under the POS are 3 subscales: the Cognition subscale, the Emotion subscale, and the Behavior subscale. The PSSS is divided into 4 subscales: the Problem Definition and Formulation subscale, the Generation of Alternative Solutions subscale, the Decision Making subscale, and the Solution Implementation and Verification subscale. From samples of undergraduate college students and middle-aged community residents, preliminary data concerning the reliability and validity of the SPSI are presented. Collectively, these data suggest strongly that the SPSI has sound psychometric properties, is a promising multicomponent measure of social problem-solving ability, and can be useful for both research and clinical assessment.

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