Purpose The present paper summarizes findings of the special issue papers on the intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment and explores the potential moderating effects of safe, stable, nurturing relationships (SSNRs) through meta-analysis. Methods Studies were selected for inclusion in this meta-analysis if they (1) were published in peer-reviewed journals, (2) tested for intergenerational continuity in any form of child maltreatment using prospective, longitudinal data, and (3) tested for moderating effects of any variable of SSNRs on intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment. The search revealed only one additional study beyond the four reports written for this special issue that met inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis. Results Estimates of intergenerational stability of child maltreatment from the studies included in this special issue are consistent with several other studies which find that child maltreatment in one generation is positively related to child maltreatment in the next generation. Furthermore, meta-analytic results from the five studies that met the inclusion criteria suggest a protective, moderating effect of SSNRs on intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment. The calculated fail-safe index indicated that 49 unpublished intergenerational studies with an average null effect would be required to render non-significant the overall moderation effect of SSNRs on child maltreatment. Conclusions This special issue expanded the examination of SSNRs beyond the caregiver-child dyad. That is, these studies considered SSNRs in adult relationships as well as parent-child relationships. Results suggest that certain types of SSNRs between parents and other adults (e.g., romantic partner, co-parent, or adult social support resource) may decrease maltreatment continuity. Implications and Contributions Findings of this special issue and meta-analysis suggest that focusing on enhancing (1) relationship climate and (2) positive, supportive relationships not only between parents and children, but also between parents and other adults, may be a key prevention strategy for interrupting the cycle of child maltreatment.

The authors examined the degree to which disparities in parent and child acculturation are linked to both family and child adjustment. With a sample of 1st- and 2nd-generation Mexican American children, acculturation and parent-child relationship quality at 5th grade, and parent-child conflict, child internalizing, and child externalizing at 7th grade were measured. Acculturation gaps with fathers were found to be related to later father-child conflict as well as internalizing and externalizing outcomes. Many of the associations between father-child acculturation gaps and outcomes were moderated by the child's report of the relationship quality between the child and his or her father. Father-child acculturation gaps were associated with negative outcomes only when children reported a poor relationship with their fathers. Mother-child acculturation gaps were not associated with mother-child conflict or adjustment indices.

Using data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, we examined children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior problems from age 5 to age 15 in relation to whether they had experienced a parental divorce. Children from divorced families had more behavior problems compared with a propensity score-matched sample of children from intact families according to both teachers and mothers. They exhibited more internalizing and externalizing problems at the first assessment after the parents’ separation and at the last available assessment (age 11 for teacher reports, or age 15 for mother reports). Divorce also predicted both short-term and long-term rank-order increases in behavior problems. Associations between divorce and child behavior problems were moderated by family income (assessed before the divorce) such that children from families with higher incomes prior to the separation had fewer internalizing problems than children from families with lower incomes prior to the separation. Higher levels of pre-divorce maternal sensitivity and child IQ also functioned as protective factors for children of divorce. Mediation analyses showed that children were more likely to exhibit behavior problems after the divorce if their post-divorce home environment was less supportive and stimulating, their mother was less sensitive and more depressed, and their household income was lower. We discuss avenues for intervention, particularly efforts to improve the quality of home environments in divorced families.

The Interactionist Model of human development (Conger & Donellan, 2007) proposes that the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and human development involves a dynamic interplay that includes both social causation (SES influences human development) and social selection (individual characteristics affect SES). Using a multigenerational dataset involving 271 families, the current study finds empirical support for the Interactionist Model. Adolescent personality characteristics indicative of social competence, goal-setting, hard work, and emotional stability predicted later SES, parenting, and family characteristics that were related to the positive development of a third generation child. Processes of both social selection and social causation appear to account for the association between SES and dimensions of human development indicative of healthy functioning across multiple generations. Keywords transgenerational patterns; socioeconomic status; interactionist modelAfter decades of studying dysfunction and maladjustment, social and behavioral scientists have begun to recognize the importance of environmental/contextual and dispositional factors that promote or facilitate healthy development, an approach consistent with the theme of this special issue of Child Development. In addition to conforming with the recognition that healthy development is more than the simple absence of maladjustment (see Christopher & Campbell, 2008), this work on positive development offers alternative pathways for interventions and programs focused on promotion of resilience under stressful conditions (Joseph & Linley, 2009;Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). The present report is consistent with this approach to research on human development inasmuch as it considers the interface between socioeconomic status (SES) and markers of healthy functioning across multiple generations of family members.Past research has demonstrated a positive association between socioeconomic status and competent or healthy child development (e.g., Duncan & Magnuson, 2003;Haveman & Wolfe, 1994;Linver, Brooks-Gunn, & Kohen, 2002;Mayer, 1997;McLoyd, 1990). However, this association between SES and development may be viewed from at least two different perspectives. Some researchers propose that SES influences parental behavior and, in turn, child development (e.g., Linver et al., 2002). This view represents the social causation perspective which predicts that social conditions lead to variations in health and well-being. Other researchers propose that the relationship between SES and parenting is an artifact, and that prior characteristics of future parents affect both their SES and relationships with their children. This view represents the social selection Correspondence regarding this manuscript should be addressed to tomschofield@ucdavis.edu. NIH Public Access Author ManuscriptChild Dev. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 January 1. NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript perspective which proposes that the t...

Purpose Harsh, abusive and rejecting behavior by parents toward their children is associated with increased risk for many developmental problems for youth. Earlier research also shows that children raised by harsh parents are more likely to treat their own children harshly. The present study sought to identify behaviors of romantic partners that might help break this intergenerational cycle of child mistreatment. Methods Data come from the Family Transitions Project, a 22-year, 3-generation study of a cohort of over 500 early adolescents (G2) grown to adulthood. During adolescence, observers rated G1 harsh parenting to G2. Several years later observers rated G2 harsh parenting toward their oldest child (G3). In addition, G2's romantic partner (spouse or cohabiting) was rated by observers on a range of behaviors expected to affect G2 harsh parenting. Results Romantic partner warmth and positive communication with G2 were associated with less G2 harsh parenting toward G3 (a direct effect) and when these partner behaviors were high, there was no evidence of intergenerational continuity from G1 to G2 harsh parenting. When the partner was low on warmth and communication, intergenerational continuity in harsh parenting significantly increased. G1 harsh parenting slightly decreased the likelihood that G2 would select a positive spouse. Conclusions Romantic partner warmth, support and positive communication appear to provide interpersonal nurturance that disrupts continuity in parental mistreatment of children. As appropriate, preventive interventions should include a focus on spousal or partner behaviors in their educational or treatment programs.