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Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks have been deployed in speech recognition, natural language processing and financial calculations in recent years, and are beginning to be used in systems where low latency and low power are required. To meet such requirements, we propose a stall-free hardware architecture by reorganising the order of operations in an LSTM system and develop a unique blocking-batching strategy to reuse the LSTM weights fetched from external memory to optimise the benefits of on-chip memory with a limited size for a large machine learning model. Evaluation results show that our architecture can achieve up to 20.8 GOPS/W, which would be among the highest for FPGA designs targeting LSTM systems with weights stored in off-chip memory. Comparing to the state-of-the-art design using off-chip memory to store the weights, we achieve 1.65 times higher performance-per-watt efficiency and 1.60 times higher performance-per-DSP efficiency. When compared with CPU and GPU implementation, our novel hardware architecture is 23.7 and 1.3 times faster while consuming 208 and 19.2 times lower energy respectively, which shows that our approach contributes to high performance and low power FPGA-based LSTM systems.

Acknowledgments page viii List of abbreviations ix Introduction xi Chronology xxxix Further reading xli Note on the text and translation xliv Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge 1

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