BackgroundExposure to the nerve agent soman (GD) causes neuronal cell death and impaired behavioral function dependent on the induction of status epilepticus (SE). Little is known about the maturation of this pathological process, though neuroinflammation and infiltration of neutrophils are prominent features. The purpose of this study is to quantify the regional and temporal progression of early chemotactic signals, describe the cellular expression of these factors and the relationship between expression and neutrophil infiltration in damaged brain using a rat GD seizure model.MethodsProtein levels of 4 chemokines responsible for neutrophil infiltration and activation were quantified up to 72 hours in multiple brain regions (i.e. piriform cortex, hippocampus and thalamus) following SE onset using multiplex bead immunoassays. Chemokines with significantly increased protein levels were localized to resident brain cells (i.e. neurons, astrocytes, microglia and endothelial cells). Lastly, neutrophil infiltration into these brain regions was quantified and correlated to the expression of these chemokines.ResultsWe observed significant concentration increases for CXCL1 and MIP-1α after seizure onset. CXCL1 expression originated from neurons and endothelial cells while MIP-1α was expressed by neurons and microglia. Lastly, the expression of these chemokines directly preceded and positively correlated with significant neutrophil infiltration in the brain. These data suggest that following GD-induced SE, a strong chemotactic response originating from various brain cells, recruits circulating neutrophils to the injured brain.ConclusionsA strong induction of neutrophil attractant chemokines occurs following GD-induced SE resulting in neutrophil influx into injured brain tissues. This process may play a key role in the progressive secondary brain pathology observed in this model though further study is warranted.

Nerve agents are a class of organophosphorus compounds (OPs) that blocks communication between nerves and organs. Because of their acute neurotoxicity, it is extremely difficult to rescue the victims after exposure. Numerous efforts have been devoted to search for an effective prophylactic nerve agent bioscavenger to prevent the deleterious effects of these compounds. However, low scavenging efficiency, unfavorable pharmacokinetics, and immunological problems have hampered the development of effective drugs. Here, we report the development and testing of a nanoparticle-based nerve agent bioscavenger (nanoscavenger) that showed long-term protection against OP intoxication in rodents. The nanoscavenger, which catalytically breaks down toxic OP compounds, showed a good pharmacokinetic profile and negligible immune response in a rat model of OP intoxication. In vivo administration of the nanoscavenger before or after OP exposure in animal models demonstrated protective and therapeutic efficacy. In a guinea pig model, a single prophylactic administration of the nanoscavenger effectively prevented lethality after multiple sarin exposures over a 1-week period. Our results suggest that the prophylactic administration of the nanoscavenger might be effective in preventing the toxic effects of OP exposure in humans.

The current research progression efforts for investigating novel treatments for exposure to organophosphorus (OP) compounds that inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), including pesticides and chemical warfare nerve agents (CWNAs), rely solely on in vitro cell assays and in vivo rodent models. The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a popular, well-established vertebrate model in biomedical research that offers high-throughput capabilities and genetic manipulation not readily available with rodents. A number of research studies have investigated the effects of subacute developmental exposure to OP pesticides in zebrafish, observing detrimental effects on gross morphology, neuronal development, and behavior. Few studies, however, have utilized this model to evaluate treatments, such as oxime reactivators, anticholinergics, or anticonvulsants, following acute exposure. Preliminary work has investigated the effects of CWNA exposure. The results clearly demonstrated relative toxicity and oxime efficacy similar to that reported for the rodent model. This review surveys the current literature utilizing zebrafish as a model for OP exposure and highlights its potential use as a high-throughput system for evaluating AChE reactivator antidotal treatments to acute pesticide and CWNA exposure.

BackgroundStatus epilepticus (SE) can cause neuronal cell death and impaired behavioral function. Acute exposure to potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitors such as soman (GD) can cause prolonged SE activity, micro-hemorrhage and cell death in the hippocampus, thalamus and piriform cortex. Neuroinflammation is a prominent feature of brain injury with upregulation of multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines including those of the IL-1 family. The highly pleiotropic pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-18 (IL-18) belongs to the IL-1 family of cytokines and can propagate neuroinflammation by promoting immune cell infiltration, leukocyte and lymphocyte activation, and angiogenesis and helps facilitate the transition from the innate to the adaptive immune response. The purpose of this study is to characterize the regional and temporal expression of IL −18 and related factors in the brain following SE in a rat GD seizure model followed by localization of IL-18 to specific cell types.MethodsThe protein levels of IL-18, vascular endothelial growth factor and interferon gamma was quantified in the lysates of injured brain regions up to 72 h following GD-induced SE onset using bead multiplex immunoassays. IL-18 was localized to various cell types using immunohistochemistry and transmission electron microscopy. In addition, macrophage appearance scoring and T-cell quantification was determined using immunohistochemistry. Micro-hemorrhages were identified using hematoxylin and eosin staining of brain sections.ResultsSignificant increases in IL-18 occurred in the piriform cortex, hippocampus and thalamus following SE. IL-18 was primarily expressed by endothelial cells and astrocytes associated with the damaged neurovascular unit. The increase in IL-18 was not related to macrophage accumulation, neutrophil infiltration or T-cell appearance in the injured tissue.ConclusionsThese data show that IL-18 is significantly upregulated following GD-induced SE and localized primarily to endothelial cells in damaged brain vasculature. IL-18 upregulation occurred following leukocyte/lymphocyte infiltration and in the absence of other IL-18-related cytokines, suggesting another function, potentially for angiogenesis related to GD-induced micro-hemorrhage formation. Further studies at more chronic time points may help to elucidate this function.