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Importance Recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA) is a distressing condition experienced by approximately 1% of women trying to conceive. However, the treatment of RSA is a challenge both for clinicians and patients. Objective The aim of this review is to discuss the medical and surgical approach to the management of RSA, including those caused by anatomical, genetic, male, infectious, endocrine, and immune factors. Evidence Acquisition A literature search using MeSH terms for each topic was undertaken using PubMed, supplemented by hand searching for additional references. Retrieved articles were reviewed, synthesized, and summarized. Results Available treatments target hypothetical risk factors for RSA, although the effectiveness of many treatment options is controversial. Intervention should depend on the benefit-to-risk ratio of the proposed treatment. Conclusions and Relevance The etiology of RSA is heterogeneous, and patients often lack specific clinical manifestations, which has hindered the progress in predicting and preventing RSA to some extent. Despite intensive workup, at least 50% of couples do not have a clear underlying pathology. In addition, an evidence-based treatment is not available in most patients even if abnormal test results are present. Many new treatment directions are also still actively exploring; empirical and combined multiple treatments are still the main methods. Target Audience Obstetricians and gynecologists, family physicians. Learning Objectives After completing this activity, the learner should be better able to describe common risk factors for RSA; formulate individualized treatment plans to improve pregnancy outcomes; and propose supportive treatment recommendations for patients with unclear causes.

BackgroundWith the widespread application of assisted reproduction technology (ART) and increased pelvic inflammatory disease, the incidence of heterotopic pregnancy (HP) has risen. However, the risk factors and treatment of HP remain indefinite.ObjectivesTo explore risk factors affecting the incidence of HP secondary to in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer (IVF-ET) and pregnancy outcomes after surgical treatment of HP.Methods29 patients with HP and 116 with an intrauterine-only pregnancy (IUP) after IVF-ET during the same period were included retrospectively from January 2015 to September 2020.ResultsPatients with HP had a higher proportion of previous ectopic pregnancies, multiple abortion history (≧2 times) and tubal indication for IVF than IUP. Besides, they had a greater possibility to end in spontaneous abortion (31.03 vs.13.79%, P = 0.028) and preterm delivery (25.00 vs. 7.00%, P = 0.035), less possibility to result in a live birth (58.62 vs. 78.45%, P = 0.028). History of multiple abortions (≥2 times) [odds ratio (OR) 3.031, 95% confidence intervals (CI) 1.087–8.453; P = 0.034], tubal infertility (OR 3.844, 95% CI 1.268–11.656; P = 0.017), previous ectopic pregnancies (OR 2.303, 95% CI 0.625–8.490; P = 0.021) and number of embryo transfer (OR 0.300, 95% CI 0.092–0.983; P = 0.037) resulted in an elevated proportion of HP in IVF treatment. Shorter operative duration, smaller size of the ectopic mass and location in the ampulla of the fallopian tube were associated with higher chance of survival in the coexistent intrauterine pregnancy after surgical treatment.ConclusionsPrevious history of ectopic pregnancy, multiple abortions, tubal infertility and multiple-embryo transfer may be considered as meaningful risk factors of subsequent HP following IVF-ET. In patients with HP treated by surgery, shorter operative duration, smaller size of the ectopic mass and location in the ampulla of the fallopian tube means better reproductive prognosis.