Background Although the association between malaria and anaemia is widely studied in patient cohorts, the population-representative causal effects of malaria on anaemia remain unknown. This study estimated the malaria-induced decrease in haemoglobin levels among young children in malaria-endemic Burkina Faso. Methods The study was based on pooled individual-level nationally representative health survey data (2010–2011, 2014, 2017–2018) from 17 599 children under 5 years of age. This data was used to estimate the effects of malaria on haemoglobin concentration, controlling for household fixed-effects, age, and sex in a series of regression analyses. The fixed-effects controlled for observed and unobserved confounding on the household level and allowed to determine the impact of malaria infection status on haemoglobin levels and anaemia prevalence. Furthermore, the diagnostic results from microscopy and rapid diagnostic tests were leveraged to provide a quasi-longitudinal perspective of acute and prolonged effects after malaria infection. Results The prevalence of both malaria (survey prevalence ranging from 17.4% to 65.2%) and anaemia (survey prevalence ranging from 74% to 88.2%) was very high in the included surveys. Malaria was estimated to significantly reduce haemoglobin levels, with an overall effect of − 7.5 g/dL (95% CI − 8.5, − 6.5). Acute malaria resulted in a − 7.7 g/dL (95% CI − 8.8, − 6.6) decrease in haemoglobin levels. Recent malaria without current parasitaemia decreased haemoglobin concentration by − 7.1 g/dL (95% CI − 8.3, − 5.9). The in-sample predicted prevalence of severe anaemia was 9.4% among malaria positives, but only 2.2% among children without malaria. Conclusion Malaria infection has a strong detrimental effect on haemoglobin levels among young children in Burkina Faso. This effect seems to carry over even after acute infection, indicating prolonged haemoglobin reductions even after successful parasite-elimination. The quasi-experimental fixed-effect approach adds a population level perspective to existing clinical evidence.

Background Most data on COVID-19 was collected in hospitalized cases. Much less is known about the spectrum of disease in entire populations. In this study, we examine a representative cohort of primarily symptomatic cases in an administrative district in Southern Germany. Methods We contacted all confirmed SARS-CoV-2 cases in the administrative district. Consenting participants answered a retrospective survey either via a telephone, electronically or via mail. Clinical and sociodemographic features were compared between hospitalized and non-hospitalized patients. Additionally, we assessed potential risk factors for hospitalization and time to hospitalization in a series of regression models. Results We included 897 participants in our study, 69% out of 1,305 total cases in the district with a mean age of 47 years (range 2–97), 51% of which were female and 47% had a pre-existing illness. The percentage of asymptomatic, mild, moderate (leading to hospital admission) and critical illness (requiring mechanical ventilation) was 54 patients (6%), 713 (79%), 97 (11%) and 16 (2%), respectively. Seventeen patients (2%) died. The most prevalent symptoms were fatigue (65%), cough (62%) and dysgeusia (60%). The risk factors for hospitalization included older age (OR 1.05 per year increase; 95% CI 1.04–1.07) preexisting lung conditions (OR 3.09; 95% CI 1.62–5.88). Female sex was a protective factor (OR 0.51; 95% CI 0.33–0.77). Conclusion This representative analysis of primarily symptomatic COVID-19 cases confirms age, male sex and preexisting lung conditions but not cardiovascular disease as risk factors for severe illness. Almost 80% of infection take a mild course, whereas 13% of patients suffer moderate to severe illness. Trial registration German Clinical Trials Register, DRKS00022926. URL: https://www.drks.de/drks_web/setLocale_EN.do

BackgroundYoung children in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), particularly those from resource-limited settings, are heavily burdened by anemia and malaria. While malaria infected children frequently become anemic (hemoglobin < 110 g/L), anemia is a strongly multifactorial disease with many other risk factors than malaria. Due to the complex and often overlapping contributors to anemia, it remains challenging to isolate the true impact of malaria on population level hemoglobin concentrations.MethodsWe quantified the malaria-induced effect on hemoglobin levels in children under 5 years of age, leveraging data from 7,384 twins and other multiples, aged 6 to 59 months, from 57 nationally representative Demographic and Health Surveys (DHSs) from 23 SSA countries from 2006 to 2019. The quasi-experimental twin fixed-effect design let us minimize the impact of potential confounders that do not vary between twins.ResultsOur analyses of twins revealed a malaria-induced hemoglobin decrease in infected twins of 9 g/L (95% CI -10; -7, p<0.001). The relative risk of severe anemia was higher (RR = 3.01, 95% CI 1.79; 5.1, p<0.001) among malaria positive children, compared to malaria negative children. Conversely, malaria positive children are only half as likely to be non-anemic (RR = 0.51, 95% CI 0.43; 0.61, p<0.001).ConclusionEven after rigorous control for confounding through a twin fixed-effects study design, malaria substantially decreased hemoglobin levels among SSA twins, rendering them much more susceptible to severe anemia. This effect reflects the population-level effect of malaria on anemia.