These findings challenge the classical paradigm that patients with FD show no structural changes in the gastrointestinal tract. We suggest that impaired intestinal barrier function is a pathophysiological mechanism in FD. Thus, restoration of intestinal barrier integrity may be a potential therapeutic target for treating patients with FD.

Acute psychological stress increases small intestinal permeability in humans. Peripheral CRH reproduces the effect of stress and DSCG blocks the effect of both stress and CRH, suggesting the involvement of mast cells. These findings provide new insight into the complex interplay between the central nervous system and GI function in man.

Achalasia is a relatively rare primary motor esophageal disorder, characterized by absence of relaxations of the lower esophageal sphincter and of peristalsis along the esophageal body. As a result, patients typically present with dysphagia, regurgitation and occasionally chest pain, pulmonary complication and malnutrition. New diagnostic methodologies and therapeutic techniques have been recently added to the armamentarium for treating achalasia. With the aim to offer clinicians and patients an up-to-date framework for making informed decisions on the management of this disease, the International Society for Diseases of the Esophagus Guidelines proposed and endorsed the Esophageal Achalasia Guidelines (I-GOAL). The guidelines were prepared according the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE-REX) tool, accredited for guideline production by NICE UK. A systematic literature search was performed and the quality of evidence and the strength of recommendations were graded according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE). Given the relative rarity of this disease and the paucity of high-level evidence in the literature, this process was integrated with a three-step process of anonymous voting on each statement (DELPHI). Only statements with an approval rate >80% were accepted in the guidelines. Fifty-one experts from 11 countries and 3 representatives from patient support associations participated to the preparations of the guidelines. These guidelines deal specifically with the following achalasia issues: Diagnostic workup, Definition of the disease, Severity of presentation, Medical treatment, Botulinum Toxin injection, Pneumatic dilatation, POEM, Other endoscopic treatments, Laparoscopic myotomy, Definition of recurrence, Follow up and risk of cancer, Management of end stage achalasia, Treatment options for failure, Achalasia in children, Achalasia secondary to Chagas' disease.

Dumping syndrome is a frequent complication of cancer and non-cancer oesophageal and gastric surgery, as well as bariatric surgery (also known as metabolic surgery). These interventions change gastric anatomy and innervation, which can enable a considerable amount of undigested food to reach the small intestine too rapidly 1-4. Dumping syndrome comprises a constellation of symptoms that can be subdivided into early and late dumping syndrome symptoms, which can occur jointly or separately 1-8. Typically, symptoms of early dumping syndrome occur within the first hour after a meal and include gastrointestinal symptoms (abdominal pain, bloating, borborygmi, nausea and diarrhoea) and vasomotor symptoms (flushing, palpitations, perspiration, tachycardia, hypotension, fatigue, desire to lie down and, rarely, syncope) 1,2. The underlying mechanisms might involve osmotic effects, peptide hormone release and autonomic neural responses 1. Symptoms of late dumping syndrome usually occur between 1 and 3 h after a meal and are primarily the manifestations of hypoglycaemia, which mainly results from an incretin-driven hyperinsulinaemic response after carbohydrate ingestion. Hypoglycaemia-related symptoms are attributable to neuroglycopenia (which is indicated by fatigue, weakness, confusion, hunger and syncope) and to vagal and sympathetic activation (indicated by perspiration, palpitations, tremor and irritability) 1,2. The literature has referred to late dumping syndrome as 'reactive hypoglycaemia' or, after bariatric surgery, as 'postbariatric hypoglycaemia'. However, on the basis of a common pathophysiology of rapid exposure of the small intestine to nutrients, which is also seen in early dumping syndrome (see subsequent discussion), we refer to this phenomenon as 'late dumping syndrome'. The prevalence of dumping syndrome depends on the type and extent of surgery, and on the criteria used to diagnose dumping syndrome. Dumping syndrome occurs in approximately 20% of patients undergoing

The farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a nuclear bile acid receptor involved in bile acid homeostasis, hepatic and intestinal inflammation, liver fibrosis, and cardiovascular disease. We studied the effect of short-term treatment with obeticholic acid (INT-747), a potent selective FXR agonist, on intrahepatic hemodynamic dysfunction and signaling pathways in different rat models of cirrhotic portal hypertension (PHT). For this, thioacetamide (TAA)-intoxicated and bile-ductligated (BDL) rats were used as models. After gavage of two doses of 30 mg/kg of INT-747 or vehicle within 24 hours, in vivo hemodynamics were assessed. Additionally, we evaluated the direct effect of INT-747 on total intrahepatic vascular resistance (IHVR) and intrahepatic vascular tone (endothelial dysfunction and hyperresponsiveness to methoxamine) by means of an in situ liver perfusion system and on hepatic stellate cell contraction in vitro. FXR expression and involved intrahepatic vasoactive pathways (e.g., endothelial nitric oxide synthase [eNOS], Rhokinase, and dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase [DDAH]) were analyzed by immunohistochemistry, reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, or western blotting. In both cirrhotic models, FXR expression was decreased. Treatment with INT-747 in TAA and BDL reactivated the FXR downstream signaling pathway and decreased portal pressure by lowering total IHVR without deleterious systemic hypotension. In the perfused TAA and BDL cirrhotic liver, INT-747 improved endothelial vasorelaxation capacity, but not hyperresponsiveness. In both groups, this was associated with an increased eNOS activity, which, in TAA, related to down-regulation of Rho-kinase and in BDL to up-regulation of DDAH-2. Conclusion: FXR agonist INT-747 improves PHT in two different rat models of cirrhosis by decreasing IHVR. This hemodynamic effect relates to increased intrahepatic eNOS activity by pathways that differ depending on the etiology of cirrhosis. (HEPATOLOGY 2014;59:2286-2298 See Editorial on Page 2072 P ortal hypertension (PHT) is the driving force behind many of the lethal complications of cirrhosis, such as gastroesophageal variceal bleeding, hepatic encephalopathy, ascites, hepatorenal syndrome, and bacterial infections. [1][2][3][4] Despite its effect on morbidity and mortality, current pharmacotherapy remains almost exclusively restricted to the use of nonselective beta-adrenergic blockers. These drugs indisputably lower PHT by decreasing portal inflow, 5-9 but are