Introduction: From time to time, it could be useful to revise and re-assess the results of long-term programs in conservation and research. This paper overviews an ongoing research program that started 10 years ago in Central Europe and focuses on blind mole-rats, a scarcely investigated and consequently enigmatic group of rodents.Results: Systematics and Taxonomy. By means of molecular biological methods targeting the sequences of mitochondrial genes we conclude that five species of blind mole-rats, representatives of genera Spalax and Nannospalax, occur in the Carpathian Basin. Based on our present knowledge they are the only terrestrial vertebrate species endemic to the region. Mapping of distributions.As recently as one hundred years ago blind mole-rats were widespread and common all over the Carpathian Basin. In the last decade, all the regions in Hungary, the Transylvanian Basin and Vojvodina where previous genuine records were known, were checked systematically. Maps and aerial photography provided information on the exact location of habitat patches that are supposed to be suitable for blind mole-rats even today. In recent years (from 2008 onwards) the survey area was extended to all locations where residents reported on the occurrence of mole-rats.Threatening factors. The main cause of population decline is agricultural development which brought about significant changes in cultivation and land use. The following specific threatening factors were defined: cultivation, tree plantations, natural reafforestation, invasive plants, overgrazing, site developement, genetic bottlenecks, extreme weather conditions, and inadequate legal protection.Risk assessment. Red List categories for all species of Carpathian Basin blind mole-rats were assessed according to the 2001 criteria. Accordingly, one species is proposed to be ranked as Vulnerable, two as Endangered, one as Critically Endangered, and one as Data Deficient (probably extinct). Conclusions:Results from molecular biological and systematic studies, distribution mapping and determination of threatening factors, have had profound effects on practical conservation. These include action plans, wide international co-operations, establishment of a new protected area, updated protected species' list, species-level risk assessment, and the first-ever relocation program of a subterranean mammal.

Danger underground and in the open -predation on blind mole rats (Rodentia:Spalacinae) revisited Abstract 1. Being totally blind with no tail and earconch, blind mole rats -found in the Balkan Peninsula, Central and Eastern Europe, Middle East and North-East Africa -are the most specialised rodents for the subterranean lifestyle. However, they come to the surface occasionally due to unusual climatic events, foraging activity, collecting hay for bedding material, dispersal of the subadults, intraspecific aggression, and illness. 2.The only review of surface activity and suffered predation of blind mole rats (published in 1991) suggests that the surface activity of and, consequently, the predation on blind mole rats are uncommon events, and that they are preyed on mainly at night by owls.3. The present review based on 57 scientific publications, 14 unpublished reports and several personal observations (from 15 countries) reveals that altogether 26 species of birds and mammals prey on blind mole rats either regularly or occasionally. It is evidenced herewith, that not only the number of predators, but even the percentage of blind mole rats in their diet has been seriously underestimated. 5.The tight relation between the colours of the soil and the pelage of blind mole rats suggests the importance of diurnal raptors via their selective impact. Predation by mammals happens relatively often and there is a high possibility that mustelids hunt blind mole rats not only on the surface but also inside their burrows. The labyrinth-like structure of the burrows can probably play a vital role confusing the mammalian predators trying to hunt inside the burrows, and increase the prey's chances to escape. 6.With the proven importance of blind mole rats as a food resource of several threatened birds of prey, the survival, reproduction success and population size of these species may partly also depend on the density of these rodents. Although many species within the subfamily are threatened themselves to different extents, the role of blind mole rat populations in the carnivore and raptor conservation should be considered and evaluated. Cytogenetic (Lyapunova et al. 1971) and molecular genetic (Hadid et al. 2012, Chişamera et al. 2013) works provided evidences of deep divergences within the subfamily therefore the two genera (Spalax and Nannospalax) classification scheme has been followed here in accordance with the most recent publications (Németh et al. 2009, 2013, Arslan et al. 2011, Kryštufek et al. 2012, Chişamera et al. 2013. The species of the subfamily have adapted to subterranean life (Méhely 1909, Topachevskii 1969, Savić & Nevo 1990. These small mammals have cylindrically shaped bodies with no external ears, a vestigial tail, very short legs and are completely blind as a result of spending their entire life in their tunnel system built underground (Vásárhelyi 1926, Topachevskii 1969. This subterranean way of life protects them from almost every predator (Vásárhelyi 1926, 1929, Watson 1961, Topachevskii 1969. How...