This study examined whether self‐esteem moderates the relationship between role stressors and both psychological and physical strains. Unlike previous studies, however, both global and organization‐based self‐esteem measures were utilized. Based on previous research, it was hypothesized that moderator effects would be most prevalent using the organization‐based measure when both stressors and strains were measured from an organizational frame of reference. When both stressors and strains were not measured from an organizational frame of reference, it was felt that an organization‐based self‐esteem measure would not necessarily produce more moderator effects. Overall, results showed some support for moderator effects. However, these differed very little as a function of self‐esteem measurement. Implications for the study of self‐esteem in occupational stress research are discussed.

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The glass ceiling refers to the difficulty of women trying to be promoted into the top management levels. The present study examined managers' potential explanations, implicit or explicit, for why women rarely reach the top hierarchical levels in their own organization. Among 685 managers at a large Midwestern insurance company, a model was supported in which beliefs about interpersonal and situational variables in the organization were related to the perception that men and women were treated differently overall, which, in turn, was related to the belief that a glass ceiling existed. The model was not different for male and female managers, but women tended to perceive that each element of the model existed to a greater extent than men did.

The glass ceiling refers to the difficulty of women trying to be promoted into the top management levels. The present study examined managers' potential explanations, implicit or explicit, for why women rarely reach the top hierarchical levels in their own organization. Among 685 managers at a large Midwestern insurance company, a model was supported in which beliefs about interpersonal and situational variables in the organization were related to the perception that men and women were treated differently overall, which, in tum, was related to the belief that a glass ceiling existed. The model was not different for male and female managers, but women tended to perceive that each element of the model existed to a greater extent than men did.Women have a disproportionately low presence in top levels of management, and the term "glass ceiling" has been often used to describe this phenomenon in the past. Hillary Clinton, while withdrawing from the 2008 race for U.S. president, used the term, arguing that the glass ceiling regarding the presidency had at least been cracked (Lochhead, 2008). Even with the inroads women have made into management (Joy, 2008), the glass ceiling phenomenon has not been eliminated. With increasing awareness of the glass ceiling in business, it is important to know how managers see it. Managers are the people most directly involved with the glass ceiling; They affect it through their personnelrelated decisions and they are affected by it, especially the women managers whose own careers are directly affected. The present study examines beliefs that managers have about the presence of a glass ceiling and the interpersonal and situational factors that may influence it.

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