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Magnetic skarn ore (MSO) is one of the major copper bearing ore extracted by the Ok Tedi Copper Mine in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Copper minerals are recovered by flotation while the iron not associated with copper are discarded as tailings. The objective of this investigation was to determine the iron ore reduction kinetics for the Ok Tedi MSO and ascertain if it can be processed to produce sponge iron for a mini steel plant in Papua New Guinea. SEM-EDAX analyses of the Ok Tedi MSO indicated 10.1% C, 30% O, 0.6% Mg, 1.1% Si, 21.1% S, 0.8% Ca and 36.2 % Fe. Most of the iron is in sulfide form. Both naturally occurring and roasted sinters of Ok Tedi MSO samples of different particle sizes were reduced by charcoal carbon at three different temperatures and seven different reduction times. Analyses of the reduced products indicated a metallic iron content of more than 65 wt. % on average. Results showed that there was no significant difference in reduction between fluxed and control materials. Only a slight increase in kinetics with reduced particle size, hence the reaction rate constant (K) did not vary much within the temperatures investigated. Reaction kinetics increases with increasing reduction time at 900°C. Therefore, more iron reduction is observed with particles of 106 µm size. In addition, the results also confirmed that the reduction energy used was higher at 800°C and lower at 1000°C. In conclusion, iron reduction can be improved but close monitoring of temperature and reduction times are essential to determine the reaction kinetics of the Ok Tedi MSO.

As Social Researchers, we have for the last one and half decades witnessed a disturbing lag in the existing body of literature for causal explanations. The majority seem to contradict and provide no clear-cut explanations about the relevancy of applying causal techniques to understand social patterns. Much as it is true that understanding social processes and patterns is in many ways more challenging than understanding the physical world, social researchers need to provide a justification to these complexities through scientific inquiry using causal techniques and interpretations. Many times social researchers concentrate on the simple linearity between cause and effect and yet its ability to explain reality is doubtable. This sounds to reason that, our focus as social experts should be on what form of social interactions extend over time in the social world to establish the links between cause and effect. Again, how relevant is the available evidence to claim that social factor X causes a change in social factor Y? In other words, is social factor Y a function of social factor X? To establish a scientific conclusion and perhaps shed light on why things in the social world are the way they are, one must logically identify a competent X that can independently predict a change in Y through covariates. In light of this, social researchers can vividly offer logical explanations to various social processes which often seem to be beyond human description.   In this paper, the researchers offer a scientific explanation concerning the various errors in reasoning within the social world and provide a distinction between various types of social explanations, articulate causal reasoning behind social processes, events and patterns in order to draw conclusions that are based on evidence.