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The objective of this article is to analyse the development of biotechnology in Cuba in connection with its medical applications, the main factors responsible for its interesting and encouraging results in the successful innovation processes, and some of the threats and challenges confronting its future. 1 This article is based on the analysis of documentary information and interviews held in Cuba with several responsible scientific leaders in the field and personal experiences of the author.It is necessary to base the analysis of biotechnology on the concrete experiences, free from pre-established and/or imported conclusions, because, among other things, the Cuban experience in this field has very few precedents in the world. The intent of creating rapidly a new productive sector, directly connected to economically sustainable scientific research linked to exports; under the conditions of an underdeveloped and blocked country, without external help; and on the base of the social property of the institutions and the strategic conduction of the state, constitutes a very special experience.Agustin Lage (undated, 2004)

PERSPECTIVES challenging because of its small size, short length, high fl exibility, and structural instability; many investigators questioned whether RNP has a well-defi ned helical symmetry.The two research groups accomplished this seemingly impossible task with the iterative helical real-space reconstruction method ( 6), in which the central helical region was divided into small fragments and initial helical parameters were determined from nonaveraged maps. The two termini of the RNP were separately extracted and reconstructed. As a result, the RNP structures reported in both papers are montages assembled from three independent reconstructions. Variations are noted in the helical parameters and the NP orientations of the two RNP models reported by the two groups. Possible explanations for intermodel variations include the model resolution, different handedness of the electron density maps, rotational freedom of the NP molecules, and source of RNP samples (viral particles versus cells).The work by Arranz et al. and Moeller et al. greatly expands our horizon by establishing reliable methods for the isolation and structural characterization of the infl uenza virus RNPs. Further studies of this kind would allow scientists to address many long-standing questions in the fl u fi eld. For instance, how does the helical structure of RNP rearrange during viral RNA transcription and replication? When do newly synthesized RNPs adopt the double-helical morphology? And how do the eight RNPs of infl uenza A interact with each other to mediate genome packaging and gene reassortment? Novel biochemical approaches combined with ever-improving computational and structural techniques should help to uncover much-needed insights into these complex yet intriguing problems.

This article presents a discussion on the development of the activities of science, technology and innovation (S&T&I) in Cuba after 1959, the experiences gained and the challenges to face. The main topics to be discussed are: the different periods of this process and its main characteristics; the role of government and other innovation actors; the S&T&I planning and managerial model prevalent at different moments; the effects and outcomes of the fall of the European Socialist countries and the different measures taken to overcome the difficult situations encountered. Several case studies are presented: the development of biotechnology for medical purposes, and some results experienced in the basic industry sector. Some general conclusions are drawn, and some challenges and perspectives identified.