Newly discovered IL-9–producing helper T cells (Th9) reportedly exert both aggravating and suppressive roles on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, an animal model of multiple sclerosis. However, it is still unclear whether Th9 is a distinct Th cell subset and how IL-9 functions in the CNS. In this study, we show that IL-9 is produced by naive CD4+ T cells that were stimulated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 Abs under the conditions of Th2-, inducible regulatory T cell-, Th17-, and Th9-polarizing conditions and that IL-9 production is significantly suppressed in the absence of IL-4, suggesting that IL-4 is critical for the induction of IL-9 by each producing cell. The IL-9 receptor complex, IL-9R and IL-2Rγ, is constitutively expressed on astrocytes. IL-9 induces astrocytes to produce CCL-20 but not other chemokines, including CCL-2, CCL-3, and CXCL-2 by astrocytes. The conditioned medium of IL-9–stimulated astrocytes induces Th17 cell migration in vitro, which is cancelled by adding anti–CCL-20 neutralizing Abs. Treating with anti–IL-9 neutralizing Abs attenuates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, decreases the number of infiltrating Th17 cells, and reduces CCL-20 expression in astrocytes. These results suggest that IL-9 is produced by several Th cell subsets in the presence of IL-4 and induces CCL-20 production by astrocytes to induce the migration of Th17 cells into the CNS.

No abstract

The traditional classification of hypertensive retinopathy was based on the Keith–Wagener–Barker (KWB) grading, which is a subjective scaling system, and it is difficult to distinguish between the first and second grades. Retinal and choroidal vasculatures are affected by systemic hypertension, although retinal vasculature changes with age, axial length, intraocular pressure, and retinal diseases. It is necessary to establish a new objective method to assess hypertensive vascular changes. In the present study, we have examined the vasculature of the macular choriocapillaris in order to establish a new objective method to assess hypertensive vascular changes using optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA). Choriocapillaris vessel density (VD), vessel length, and vessel diameter index in a 3 × 3 mm macular area were measured by OTCA in a total of 567 volunteers (361 healthy subjects and 206 subjects with systemic hypertension) who attended a basic health check-up. Ocular factors, systemic factors, and medications were evaluated. We detected significant differences in normative choriocapillaris vasculature between the left and right eyes in 53 healthy subjects and revealed correlations between age, intraocular pressure, axial length, and choriocapillaris vasculature in 308 healthy subjects. Normative foveal VD was correlated with age only and the efficiency was weak. The analysis of 206 right eyes (KWB grade 0, 159 eyes; grade 1, 35 eyes; and grade 2, 12 eyes) revealed that foveal VD was strongly correlated with KWB grade only (P < 0.001). This is the first report suggesting that OCTA for foveal choriocapillaris measurement by OCTA would might provide the advantage of evaluating be objective method for evaluating the progression of systemic hypertension.

The choroid can autoregulate its blood flow in response to experimental changes in the OPP induced by IOP elevations.

the purpose of this cross-sectional retrospective study was to determine the relationship between the retinal displacements and the retinal thickness in eyes with epiretinal membrane (eRM) after vitrectomy with internal limiting membrane (iLM) peeling. to accomplish this, we measured the retinal thickness using optical coherence tomography (oct) and the retinal displacement using OCT angiography to obtain 3 mm × 3 mm en face images before, and 2, 4, and 8 weeks following the surgery from 20 eyes of 20 patients. The distance between the retinal vessel bifurcations and the fovea was significantly displaced centrifugally and asymmetrically in the 4 quadrants postoperatively (P < 0.001). The foveal avascular zone (FAZ) was significantly enlarged, and the central foveal thickness (CFT) and the inner nuclear layer (INL) thickness were significantly thinner postoperatively. The displacements were significantly correlated with the changes in the FAZ area (r = 0.717, P < 0.001), the CFT (r = − 0.702, P < 0.001), and the INL thickness (r = − 0.702, P < 0.001). In conclusion, the distance between the retinal bifurcations and the fovea was asymmetrically expanded after the surgery and was significantly correlated with the morphological changes. These results indicate that a horizontal macular contraction is correlated with vertical retinal contraction in the eyes with an eRM. An idiopathic epiretinal membrane (ERM) is a relatively common retinochoroidal disorder in older individuals 1,2 , and it can cause an inner retinal displacement of the macula area and a disruption of the foveal structure 3. These alterations cause traction on the retina in the macular area which can lead to visual dysfunction and metamorphopsia. Vitrectomy and removal of the ERM with or without internal limiting membrane (ILM) peeling is used to release the traction and is effective in improving the visual dysfunction, metamorphopsia, and visual acuity 4-6. Thus, it is important to know how the retina in the macular area is displaced in more detail after the surgery because the displacement will affect the visual function. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) enables clinicians to obtain information of the microstructures of the fovea, and earlier studies have reported that the retinal layer at the fovea is thickened and the outer retinal layers are disrupted in eyes with an ERM 7-9. The integrity of the outer retinal layers is important for vision in retinochoroidal disorders, and their alterations have been evaluated 10-12. However, there have been only a few reports on the changes of the inner retinal layers in eyes with ERM after surgery 13. This is important because the integrity of the inner retina is a major determinant of the visual dysfunctions in eyes with an ERM. OCT angiography (OCTA) is a noninvasive and safe technique that can obtain images of the microvasculature of the retina and the choroid. OCTA has enabled clinicians to investigate the retinal vasculature in situ repeatedly in short intervals 14,15. The displacements of the inner retin...