The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is frequently activated in human cancers, leading to malignant phenotypes such as autonomous cellular proliferation. Here, we demonstrate a novel role of the activated MAPK pathway in immune evasion by melanoma cells with the mutation of BRAF, which encodes a MAPKKs, (BRAFV600E). MEK inhibitor U0126 or RNA interference (RNAi) for BRAFV600E decreased production of the immunosuppressive soluble factors interleukin (IL)-10, VEGF, or IL-6 from melanoma cells to levels comparable to those after signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)3 inactivation. The suppressive activity of the culture supernatants from the melanoma cells on the production of inflammatory cytokines IL-12 and tumor necrosis factor α by dendritic cells upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation was markedly reduced after transduction with BRAFV600E RNAi, comparable to the effects observed with STAT3 RNAi transduction. No additive or synergistic effects were observed by the simultaneous transduction of RNAi for both BRAFV600E and STAT3. Furthermore, specific DNA binding and transcriptional activity of STAT3 were not affected by down-regulation of the MAPK signaling with the BRAF RNAi. These results indicate that the MAPK signal, along with the STAT3 signal, is essential for immune evasion by human melanomas that have constitutively active MAPK signaling and is a potential molecular target for overcoming melanoma cell evasion of the immune system.

Missense mutations of human fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) result in several skeletal dysplasias, including hypochondroplasia, achondroplasia and thanatophoric dysplasia. To study the function of FGFR3 in bone growth and to create animal models for the FGFR3-related inherited skeletal disorders, we introduced a point mutation (Lys644Glu) into the murine FGFR3 genome using a knock-in approach. We found that the Lys644Glu mutation resulted in retarded endochondral bone growth with severity directly linked to the expression level of the mutated Fgfr3. Mice heterozygous for the mutation ( Fgfr3(TD/+) ) expressed the mutant allele at approximately 20% of the wild-type level and exhibited a mild bone dysplasia. However, when the copy number of the mutant allele increased from one (Fgfr3(TD/+) to two (Fgfr3(TD/TD), the retardation of bone growth became more severe and showed phenotypes resembling those of achondroplasia patients, characterized by a dramatically reduced proliferation of growth plate cartilage, macrocephaly and shortening of the long bones, which was most pronounced in the femur. Molecular analysis revealed that expression of the mutant receptor caused the activation of Stat1, Stat5a and Stat5b, and the up-regulation of p16, p18 and p19 cell cycle inhibitors, leading to dramatic expansion of the resting zone of chondrocytes at the expense of the proliferating chondrocytes. The mutant growth plates consequently were in a less active state and generated fewer maturing and hypertrophic chondrocytes. These data provide direct genetic evidence that the point mutations in FGFR3 cause human skeletal dysplasias and uncover a mechanism through which the FGFR3 signals regulate bone growth by modulating expression of Stats and ink4 cell cycle inhibitors.

We have generated the first mouse model of fibro-blast growth factor receptor 3 (Fgfr3) with the K644E mutation, which accurately reflects the embryonic onset of a neonatal lethal dwarfism, thanatophoric dysplasia type II (TDII). Long-bone abnormalities were identified as early as embryonic day 14, during initiation of endochondral ossification. Increased expression of PATCHED: (PTC:) was observed, independent of unaltered expression of parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP) receptor and Indian Hedgehog (IHH:), suggesting a new regulatory role for Fgfr3 in embryos. We demonstrate that the mutation enhances chondrocyte proliferation during the early embryonic skeletal development, in contrast to previous reports that showed decreased proliferation in postnatal-onset dwarf mice with activating Fgfr3 mutations. This suggests that signaling through Fgfr3 both promotes and inhibits chondrocyte proliferation, depending on the time during development. In contrast, suppressed chondrocyte differentiation was observed throughout the embryonic stages, defining decreased differentiation as the primary cause of retarded longitudinal bone growth in TDII. This model was successfully crossed with a cartilage-specific CRE: transgenic strain, excluding the lung as the primary cause of lethality.

In this review, the evidence for a role of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) mediated signalling in carcinogenesis are considered and relevant underlying mechanisms highlighted. FGF signalling mediated by FGFR follows a classic receptor tyrosine kinase signalling pathway and its deregulation at various points of its cascade could result in malignancy. Here we review the accumulating reports that revealed the association of FGF/FGFRs to various types of cancer at a genetic level, along with in vitro and in vivo evidences available so far, which indicates the functional involvement of FGF signalling in tumour formation and progression. An increasing number of drugs against the FGF pathways is currently in clinical testing. We will discuss the strategies for future FGF research in cancer and translational approaches.